A
abaya - (noun) a full-length outer garment, frequently worn with a headscarf (hijab), that is worn by women in Muslim countries
absolute location - (noun) the exact geographic location (usually described in terms of a specific address or geographic coordinates) Note- Geographic coordinates, longitude and latitude, are usually described using degrees, minutes, and seconds
acid rain - (noun) precipitation that contains harmful levels of either sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide and pH level of 5.6 or below (using a scale whereby 7 is neutral)
acidification - (noun) a reduction in the pH level in water Note- Acidification in the ocean usually occurs over a long period of time is and is caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
acronym - (noun) an abbreviation formed by the first letter of several related words
acropolis - (noun) a fortification built on the highest point in some ancient Greek cities
activate – (verb) to begin; to start or turn on.
adamant - (adjective) unwilling to be persuaded to change a decision or point of view about a topic
adaptation - (noun) the creation of a film, show, or other work that is based on a novel or poem
address - (noun) a formal speech or written communication that is delivered to an audience
adjective - (noun) a word that describes a noun or pronoun Note- When multiple adjectives are used together in the English language they follow a specific order: opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, and purpose.
admonish - (verb) to firmly scold; reprimand
aestivate - (verb) to remain dormant or torpor during extended periods of very warm to hot temperatures
affluent - (adjective) wealthy; rich
agile - (adjective) able to be move and think quickly with ease
agonic lines - (noun) lines on a map or chart that reflect no magnetic variation (true north and magnetic north are the same)
agora - (noun) a public gathering place used for assemblies and markets in ancient Greece
agoraphobia - (noun) a fear of being in open or crowded places
alleviate - (verb) to lessen or relieve pain and suffering
alley - (noun) a narrow road that is usually located between buildings or yards
alliance - (noun) a mutual agreement between countries to protect and defend each other
alliteration - (noun) a literary device, in which a sound or similar sounds (consonants), is used at the beginning of several words that are grouped closely together Example- Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
allude - (verb) to hint at or mention something indirectly
altarpiece – (noun) paintings, reliefs, and sculptures that decorate the altar in a church
ambivalent - (adjective) uncertainty due to mixed feelings or conflicting ideas
amend - (verb) to modify by either adding to or taking away from the original document
amiable - (adjective) friendly and good-natured
amphitheater - (noun) a semicircle or oval building with a central performance area and tiered seating around it Note- Amphitheaters were common in both Greek and Roman societies.
amulet - (noun) an ornament or charm that is worn to ward off evil
amygdala – (noun) an almond-shaped part of the brain that controls emotions (especially fear and pleasure) and motivation
analogy - (noun) a comparison of two different things that have some aspect in common
analyze - (verb) to study a subject and its parts with the intent of understanding it better
anecdote - (noun) a story that is either interesting or amusing and is told by a person who experienced it
ankh - (noun) a cross with a loop at the top that was a symbol of life in ancient Egypt
annexation - (noun) the act of a country taking formal control of a territory or region outside of its original borders
anno Domini (AD) - (noun) a Latin phrase meaning "in the year of our lord"
antagonist - (noun) a character or force of nature that challenges the main character in a story
antagonize - (verb) to aggravate another person to make them angry and hostile
Antarctic Circumpolar Current - (noun) an ocean current that moves in a clockwise motion around the continent of Antarctica and is known for being the largest ocean current on Earth Note- This current is also known as the West Wind Drift.
antecedent - (noun) a word, person, or event that occurred prior to those that followed
anthology - (noun) a collection of published stories, poems, and plays
anthropology - (noun) the study of human societies and their development over time
antique - (noun) an old object that is valuable due to its rarity or collectability
antithesis - (noun) the direct opposite of something or someone
antonym - (noun) a word that is opposite in meaning to another word
apartheid - (noun) a system of racial discrimination in South Africa that classified non-whites in two groups and prevented them from having the same rights as whites Note- Apartheid was the official policy of South Africa from 1948 until 1991.
apathy - (noun) lack of emotion or motivation; indifference
appellate court - (noun) a higher court that is responsible for reviewing cases and hearing appeals that have been previously decided in the lower courts; the appellate court usually determines whether legal errors were made, and if there were, whether the errors
impacted the court's final decision
apprentice - (noun) a person learning a trade, in exchange for money or labor, from a skilled craftsmen for a specified period of time
apse - (noun) the semicircular part of a church that usually has a vaulted roof Note - The altar is frequently located in the apse.
aquaculture - (noun) the farming of plants and animals in water environments (ponds, lakes, oceans)
aquifer - (noun) water-bearing permeable rock, gravel, or sand under the Earth’s surface
arable - (adjective) land that is suitable for growing crops
arch - (noun) a curved symmetrical shaped area that is supported by two columns and used to support a wall or roof above it Note- The ancient Romans took the Etruscan arch, improved it, and then used it extensively in their architecture.
archaeologist - (noun) a person who studies the remains and ruins of past culture
archaeology - (noun) the study of the remains and ruins of past cultures
archipelago - (noun) a chain of islands in a sea
Arctic Circle - (noun) the latitude above which the sun does not set on the summer solstice, and does not rise on the winter solstice. Note- The location of the Arctic Circle is approximately 66 degrees, 34 minutes North Latitude.
arid - (adjective) characterized by very dry conditions and infrequent rainfall
armada - (noun) a fleet of warships
armistice - (noun) a temporary halt to fighting and hostilities
article – (noun) a separate or distinct section of a law or constitution
articulate - (verb) to speak clearly and distinctly
artifact - (noun) a man-made object or a natural object that has been modified by humans during an earlier period of human history
artisan - (noun) a skilled craftsman who usually creates things by hand
ascend – (verb) to move or rise upward
aside - (noun) a character’s speech in a play made directly to an audience but not heard by other characters
astound - (verb) to shock or greatly surprise
astrolabe – (noun) an early scientific instrument that used the altitude of the sun or stars could be used to determine a location’s latitude
asylum - the right of a person to legally enter or stay in another country, due to recognition by that country's government, that the foreigner faces a threat to their safety in their home country
atlas - a book that contains political maps of the world
atoll - a coral island of volcanic origin that contains a reef surrounding a lagoon
attribute – a quality or characteristic that a person possesses
audible - able to be heard
austral - of or related to the southern hemisphere of the earth
autobiography - a written story about a person's life that is written by the person who lived it
autonomy - (noun) the right of a region or cultural area to government itself
avarice - (noun) excessive greed and desire for material possessions; cupidity
avaricious - (adjective) characterized by excessive greed and craving for material gain; greedy
absolute location - (noun) the exact geographic location (usually described in terms of a specific address or geographic coordinates) Note- Geographic coordinates, longitude and latitude, are usually described using degrees, minutes, and seconds
acid rain - (noun) precipitation that contains harmful levels of either sulfur dioxide or nitrogen oxide and pH level of 5.6 or below (using a scale whereby 7 is neutral)
acidification - (noun) a reduction in the pH level in water Note- Acidification in the ocean usually occurs over a long period of time is and is caused primarily by uptake of carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere.
acronym - (noun) an abbreviation formed by the first letter of several related words
acropolis - (noun) a fortification built on the highest point in some ancient Greek cities
activate – (verb) to begin; to start or turn on.
adamant - (adjective) unwilling to be persuaded to change a decision or point of view about a topic
adaptation - (noun) the creation of a film, show, or other work that is based on a novel or poem
address - (noun) a formal speech or written communication that is delivered to an audience
adjective - (noun) a word that describes a noun or pronoun Note- When multiple adjectives are used together in the English language they follow a specific order: opinion, size, age, shape, color, origin, material, and purpose.
admonish - (verb) to firmly scold; reprimand
aestivate - (verb) to remain dormant or torpor during extended periods of very warm to hot temperatures
affluent - (adjective) wealthy; rich
agile - (adjective) able to be move and think quickly with ease
agonic lines - (noun) lines on a map or chart that reflect no magnetic variation (true north and magnetic north are the same)
agora - (noun) a public gathering place used for assemblies and markets in ancient Greece
agoraphobia - (noun) a fear of being in open or crowded places
alleviate - (verb) to lessen or relieve pain and suffering
alley - (noun) a narrow road that is usually located between buildings or yards
alliance - (noun) a mutual agreement between countries to protect and defend each other
alliteration - (noun) a literary device, in which a sound or similar sounds (consonants), is used at the beginning of several words that are grouped closely together Example- Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers.
allude - (verb) to hint at or mention something indirectly
altarpiece – (noun) paintings, reliefs, and sculptures that decorate the altar in a church
ambivalent - (adjective) uncertainty due to mixed feelings or conflicting ideas
amend - (verb) to modify by either adding to or taking away from the original document
amiable - (adjective) friendly and good-natured
amphitheater - (noun) a semicircle or oval building with a central performance area and tiered seating around it Note- Amphitheaters were common in both Greek and Roman societies.
amulet - (noun) an ornament or charm that is worn to ward off evil
amygdala – (noun) an almond-shaped part of the brain that controls emotions (especially fear and pleasure) and motivation
analogy - (noun) a comparison of two different things that have some aspect in common
analyze - (verb) to study a subject and its parts with the intent of understanding it better
anecdote - (noun) a story that is either interesting or amusing and is told by a person who experienced it
ankh - (noun) a cross with a loop at the top that was a symbol of life in ancient Egypt
annexation - (noun) the act of a country taking formal control of a territory or region outside of its original borders
anno Domini (AD) - (noun) a Latin phrase meaning "in the year of our lord"
antagonist - (noun) a character or force of nature that challenges the main character in a story
antagonize - (verb) to aggravate another person to make them angry and hostile
Antarctic Circumpolar Current - (noun) an ocean current that moves in a clockwise motion around the continent of Antarctica and is known for being the largest ocean current on Earth Note- This current is also known as the West Wind Drift.
antecedent - (noun) a word, person, or event that occurred prior to those that followed
anthology - (noun) a collection of published stories, poems, and plays
anthropology - (noun) the study of human societies and their development over time
antique - (noun) an old object that is valuable due to its rarity or collectability
antithesis - (noun) the direct opposite of something or someone
antonym - (noun) a word that is opposite in meaning to another word
apartheid - (noun) a system of racial discrimination in South Africa that classified non-whites in two groups and prevented them from having the same rights as whites Note- Apartheid was the official policy of South Africa from 1948 until 1991.
apathy - (noun) lack of emotion or motivation; indifference
appellate court - (noun) a higher court that is responsible for reviewing cases and hearing appeals that have been previously decided in the lower courts; the appellate court usually determines whether legal errors were made, and if there were, whether the errors
impacted the court's final decision
apprentice - (noun) a person learning a trade, in exchange for money or labor, from a skilled craftsmen for a specified period of time
apse - (noun) the semicircular part of a church that usually has a vaulted roof Note - The altar is frequently located in the apse.
aquaculture - (noun) the farming of plants and animals in water environments (ponds, lakes, oceans)
aquifer - (noun) water-bearing permeable rock, gravel, or sand under the Earth’s surface
arable - (adjective) land that is suitable for growing crops
arch - (noun) a curved symmetrical shaped area that is supported by two columns and used to support a wall or roof above it Note- The ancient Romans took the Etruscan arch, improved it, and then used it extensively in their architecture.
archaeologist - (noun) a person who studies the remains and ruins of past culture
archaeology - (noun) the study of the remains and ruins of past cultures
archipelago - (noun) a chain of islands in a sea
Arctic Circle - (noun) the latitude above which the sun does not set on the summer solstice, and does not rise on the winter solstice. Note- The location of the Arctic Circle is approximately 66 degrees, 34 minutes North Latitude.
arid - (adjective) characterized by very dry conditions and infrequent rainfall
armada - (noun) a fleet of warships
armistice - (noun) a temporary halt to fighting and hostilities
article – (noun) a separate or distinct section of a law or constitution
articulate - (verb) to speak clearly and distinctly
artifact - (noun) a man-made object or a natural object that has been modified by humans during an earlier period of human history
artisan - (noun) a skilled craftsman who usually creates things by hand
ascend – (verb) to move or rise upward
aside - (noun) a character’s speech in a play made directly to an audience but not heard by other characters
astound - (verb) to shock or greatly surprise
astrolabe – (noun) an early scientific instrument that used the altitude of the sun or stars could be used to determine a location’s latitude
asylum - the right of a person to legally enter or stay in another country, due to recognition by that country's government, that the foreigner faces a threat to their safety in their home country
atlas - a book that contains political maps of the world
atoll - a coral island of volcanic origin that contains a reef surrounding a lagoon
attribute – a quality or characteristic that a person possesses
audible - able to be heard
austral - of or related to the southern hemisphere of the earth
autobiography - a written story about a person's life that is written by the person who lived it
autonomy - (noun) the right of a region or cultural area to government itself
avarice - (noun) excessive greed and desire for material possessions; cupidity
avaricious - (adjective) characterized by excessive greed and craving for material gain; greedy
B
ba - (noun) the spirit of a person that was able to move to the afterlife after the person died (in ancient Egypt)
babushka - (noun) a triangular shaped Russian scarf that is worn over the head and tied under the chin
bacteriostat – (noun) a substance that inhibits the growth of bacteria but does not destroy it
balm - (noun) an ointment or oil that is used to sooth or treat an ailment
bard - (noun) a poet
barrier island - (noun) a long sandy island that lies parallel to the mainland and protects it from ocean waves and wind
barter - (verb) to trade goods and services for other goods and services (without using currency)
Bedouin - (noun) nomadic people of the Arabian and Saharan deserts
beguile - (verb) to charm and flatter someone often in an attempt to deceive
bewildered - (adjective) confused; perplexed
bicameral - (noun) a legislature with two houses Note- The U.S. Congress is a bicameral legislature composed of the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives
bias - a preference that inhibits fair judgment
bilateral - of or related to two countries Note- sometimes this term is used in regards to bilateral agreements that occur between two countries.
Bill of Rights - (noun) the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that was passed in 1791
biography - (noun) a written story about a person's life that is written by another person
bleak - (adjective) grim and dreary
blockade - (noun) the closure of a port by a foreign power's naval vessels to prevent the movement of cargo and people
boycott - (verb) to stop buying a product or service in order to protest a policy or law
brawny – physically powerful; muscular
brine - (noun) water that has a high level of salt Note- Seawater usually has about 3.5% salinity by weight.
bucolic - (adjective) of or related to life in the country or farming
buffer zone - (noun) a political border that is established to separate two other countries that may be hostile to each other (Examples- Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia)
bureaucrat - (noun) an official who works for the government and helps it to operate (bureau is another word for desk - bureaucrats usually work at desks)
bush meat - (noun) a term in Africa that describes meat from hunted wildlife Examples- meat from monkeys, gorillas, bats, pangolin, bush pigs, etc.
business - (noun) an organization that produces, buys, and sells goods, or that provides a service, with the goal of making a profit
bust - (noun) a sculpture, usually of a famous person, that includes the head and shoulders
butttress - (noun) an external wall support, usually made of brick or stone, that helps to counter the outward force created by heavy arches and the roof in some cathedrals Note- Buttresses and flying buttresses were an important part of Gothic architecture. They allowed the walls of cathedrals to be thinner and allowed for larger windows.
bycatch - (noun) the capture of unwanted creatures in fish nets and hooks that are usually thrown back into the water (dead)
babushka - (noun) a triangular shaped Russian scarf that is worn over the head and tied under the chin
bacteriostat – (noun) a substance that inhibits the growth of bacteria but does not destroy it
balm - (noun) an ointment or oil that is used to sooth or treat an ailment
bard - (noun) a poet
barrier island - (noun) a long sandy island that lies parallel to the mainland and protects it from ocean waves and wind
barter - (verb) to trade goods and services for other goods and services (without using currency)
Bedouin - (noun) nomadic people of the Arabian and Saharan deserts
beguile - (verb) to charm and flatter someone often in an attempt to deceive
bewildered - (adjective) confused; perplexed
bicameral - (noun) a legislature with two houses Note- The U.S. Congress is a bicameral legislature composed of the U.S. Senate and the U.S. House of Representatives
bias - a preference that inhibits fair judgment
bilateral - of or related to two countries Note- sometimes this term is used in regards to bilateral agreements that occur between two countries.
Bill of Rights - (noun) the first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution that was passed in 1791
biography - (noun) a written story about a person's life that is written by another person
bleak - (adjective) grim and dreary
blockade - (noun) the closure of a port by a foreign power's naval vessels to prevent the movement of cargo and people
boycott - (verb) to stop buying a product or service in order to protest a policy or law
brawny – physically powerful; muscular
brine - (noun) water that has a high level of salt Note- Seawater usually has about 3.5% salinity by weight.
bucolic - (adjective) of or related to life in the country or farming
buffer zone - (noun) a political border that is established to separate two other countries that may be hostile to each other (Examples- Wakhan Corridor of Afghanistan and the Caprivi Strip of Namibia)
bureaucrat - (noun) an official who works for the government and helps it to operate (bureau is another word for desk - bureaucrats usually work at desks)
bush meat - (noun) a term in Africa that describes meat from hunted wildlife Examples- meat from monkeys, gorillas, bats, pangolin, bush pigs, etc.
business - (noun) an organization that produces, buys, and sells goods, or that provides a service, with the goal of making a profit
bust - (noun) a sculpture, usually of a famous person, that includes the head and shoulders
butttress - (noun) an external wall support, usually made of brick or stone, that helps to counter the outward force created by heavy arches and the roof in some cathedrals Note- Buttresses and flying buttresses were an important part of Gothic architecture. They allowed the walls of cathedrals to be thinner and allowed for larger windows.
bycatch - (noun) the capture of unwanted creatures in fish nets and hooks that are usually thrown back into the water (dead)
C
Cabinet - (noun) government officials who lead executive agencies and advise the President about issues related to their office (Example- The Secretary of Defense advises the President on military related issues.)
cacao pod - (noun) fruit from the Theobroma cacao L. evergreen tree that contains cocoa seeds; when the seeds are removed from the pod they are referred to as cocoa beans and are used in the making of chocolate
Caesar - (noun) a title that was used to describe Roman emperors
cairn - (noun) rocks that have been placed together to form a marker or monument
cajole - (verb) to persuade and coax sometimes by using flattery
caldera - (noun) a crater formed by the collapse of a volcano’s cone (derived from the Spanish word caldron)
caliph - (noun) a spiritual and political leader in Islam who acts as the successor of the prophet Muhammad
caliphate - (noun) a government that operates in accordance with the laws and traditions of Islam and is ruled by a caliph
callous - (adjective) showing cruel disregard or an unsympathetic attitude towards others
canopic jar - (noun) a jar used during the Egyptian mummification process to store the internal organs of a deceased person
cape - (noun) a narrow peninsula that forms a point and extends out into a sea or ocean
capillary - (noun) a tiny blood vessel that carries oxygen and nutrients to cells
capital - (noun) a city where a country's head of government is located Note- It can also refer to wealth in the form of money, stocks, bonds, or property that is held by a business or person
capitol - (noun) a building that houses the legislative branch of government
caravanserai - (noun) an inn with a central courtyard and exterior wall that was used by caravans in Asia and North Africa
cardinal directions - (noun) the four primary directions- north, east, south, and west
cardiopulmonary - (noun) involving or related to the heart and lungs
carillon - (noun) a musical instrument, usually located in a belfry, that uses at least 23 stationary bells and clappers to produce music
carpetbagger - (noun) a Northerner who traveled to the South after the US Civil War in order to gain political office or for financial gain
carrion - (noun) the rotting flesh of a dead animal
cartel - (noun) an organized association of businesses or countries that work to maintain high prices for their products and to restrict competition Note- The ultimate purpose of cartels is to increase their own profits. Cartels are seen in the United States as an unfair form of competition and are illegal.
cartographer - (noun) a person who makes maps and nautical charts
cartonnage - (noun) an ancient Egyptian mummy case that was created by tightly wrapping layers of linen or papyrus and glue
cartouche – (noun) an oblong carving or drawing that looks like a scroll, that was used in ancient Egypt and showed a pharaoh’s name
cascade - (noun) a waterfall
castrum - (noun) a Roman fortress or fortified camp
catacomb - (noun) an ancient underground Roman cemetery that was constructed in natural and man-made caves
catadromous - (adjective) creatures that spend their lives in fresh water but return to salt water to spawn
cataract - (noun) a large waterfall that contains a large amount of water and may form rapids below
catatonic - (adjective) expressionless and immobile; unresponsive
catchment area- (noun) the area where water drains from higher elevations and eventually is funneled into rivers and larger bodies of water
cathedral - (noun) a large church in a diocese that is the chief church of the bishop
cavalry - (noun) troops who historically have fought on horseback but in modern times drive mechanized vehicles
cede - (verb) to give up possession of a territory by means of a treaty sometimes by force
cella - (noun) the inner chamber of an ancient Greek or Roman temple that housed the hidden image of a diety
census - (noun) a count of the population in a specific area Note - The U.S. Constitution requires that a census be conducted every ten years to determine how many representatives will represent each state in the U.S. House of Representatives.
century - (noun) a time period of 100 years
cerebral cortex - (noun) the outer layer of the brain that allows for higher thought processes such language processing and learning
character - (noun) a person or creature in a story or play
charisma - (noun) the quality of being able to influence and inspire others; charm
charter - (noun) a royal grant of land and authority, given by a king, to colonize a distant territory
chastise - (verb) to severely reprimand or scold
chokepoint - (noun) a narrow sea channel that allows ships to move from one body of water to another. Note- Major chokepoints in the world include the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Strait of Malacca.
cedilla - (noun) a mark, placed under a letter, to indicate that it is pronounced differently than usual
Note - The cedilla is used in the French, Portuguese, Romanian, and Turkish languages. Example- façade
circa - (preposition) around or about a certain year; approximately
circumnavigate - (verb) to steer a vessel or aircraft around an object
city-state - (noun) an independent nation that is comprised of a city and surrounding territory
civil case - (noun) a non-criminal court case that involves disputes between two or more parties
civil liberties - (noun) individual freedoms such as freedom of speech and expression
civil service – (noun) a government employment system in which the most qualified applicants compete for employment based on their merit Note- This system was developed to hire the best applicant and overcome the past practice of managers hiring their friends and relatives.
civil war - (noun) a conflict between two or more groups within a country
civilization - (noun) a culturally or technologically advanced human society
claim - (noun) a position, in the form of a statement, that a speaker or writer takes regarding a specific issue Note- Claims are usually supported by reasoning and evidence in order to persuade an audience.
clan - (noun) a large group of interrelated families that live in a specific area
cliché - (noun) an overused expression
climate - (noun) the weather conditions in an area over a long period of time
climax - (noun) the point in a story at which the tension or conflict is at its highest point Note- The action in the story builds up to the climax. You know you are the climax when you get to the point where you would never want the story to suddenly stop!
coalition - (noun) a group of political parties with similar goals (important in a parliamentary system)
cocoa butter - (noun) the theobroma oil that is extracted from the cacao seed; the vegetable fat taken from the cacao beans
cognitive - (adjective) of or related to a person's mental processes that allow for thinking, remembering, and reasoning
collegiate - (adjective) of or related to a college or university
colonnade - row of columns generally supporting a covered walkway or porch
command economy - an economic system in which the government decides how resources will be used and what will be produced
commence - (verb) to begin
commentary - a verbal or written expression of an opinion about a topic
commerce - large scale trade between companies or nations
commercial farming - the operation of farms for the primary purpose of growing crops and raising livestock to make a profit Note- This is the opposite of subsistence farming
commodity - something that has commercial value and can be transported in bulk
commodity exchange - a marketplace where members buy and sell commodities contracts with the goal of making a profit
Commonwealth of Nations - an association of the United Kingdom and countries that were once part of the British Empire
compass rose - a symbol on a map that shows the four cardinal directions of north, east, south, and west Note- Some display more information such as intermediate directions and degrees.
compulsory - required by regulations or law
confederation – (noun) an alliance of independent states
conflict - the struggle that the main character has to overcome in a story Note- The struggle can occur within the central character (internal struggle), another character in the story, or even something larger like society or nature.
confluence - the place where two rivers flow together
congregate - (verb) to come together in a group
connotation - (noun) ideas, emotions, and meanings that are associated with a word that are different than the literal meaning
conquistador - (noun) a Spanish term for conquerors who explored or colonized the Americas beginning in the 16th century
conscientious - careful and thorough in completing a task
consent decree - (noun) an order that is issued by a judge that is based on an agreement between two parties in a lawsuit Note- Parties involved in a consent decree usually negotiate the terms of a consent decree to avoid costly legal fees and litigation
conservation - the preservation, management, and restoration of the natural environment
consortium - an association of companies that combine their resources to achieve a goal
conspicuous - clearly visible and likely to attract attention
constituent - (noun) a citizen within a geographical area who is entitled to vote for government candidates
constitution - (noun) a written document that outlines the basic laws and principles that are used to govern a country
consul - (noun) one of two chief magistrates who was elected for a term of one year during the Roman Republic
Note- The two consuls were the highest positions in the Roman government.
consumer - (noun) a person who buys goods and services
contour lines - (noun) lines on map that show areas of equal elevation
contraction - (noun) a word produced by connecting two words and inserting an apostrophe to make it shorter Note- The first part of the new word contains all of the original letters and one or more letters from the second word are replaced with an apostrophe.
controversy - (noun) a conflict or disagreement regarding a particular issue or decision
corbicula - (noun) the pollen basket on the hind leg of certain species of bee that is used to carry pollen
cordial - (adjective) friendly and pleasant in a polite way
cornice - (noun) decorative molding located where the wall meets the ceiling or roof
cosmopolitan - (adjective) having many foreign influences; worldly
countenance - (noun) a person's facial expression
coup - (noun) the overthrow and replacement of a country's government by military forces
couplet - (noun) a pair of successive lines in a poem that rhyme
craftsman - (noun) skilled workers who work with their hands; artisans Examples- carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, glass makers, etc.
craven - (adjective) lacking any courage; cowardly
crude oil - (noun) petroleum that has been taken from the ground but not refined
cultivate - (verb) to plant and grow crops for harvest Note- Cultivate can also refers to the raising of certain creatures such as silkworms and oysters.
culture - (noun) a learned system of shared beliefs and ways of doing things that guides a person’s daily behavior
cultural diffusion - (noun) the movement of ideas and traditions from one place to another
cuneiform – (noun) an ancient writing system, developed in Mesopotamia and Persia, that used wedge-shaped symbols to convey meaning
currency - (noun) coin and paper money
custom - (noun) a cultural practice or way of doing something that is specific to a group or country
cacao pod - (noun) fruit from the Theobroma cacao L. evergreen tree that contains cocoa seeds; when the seeds are removed from the pod they are referred to as cocoa beans and are used in the making of chocolate
Caesar - (noun) a title that was used to describe Roman emperors
cairn - (noun) rocks that have been placed together to form a marker or monument
cajole - (verb) to persuade and coax sometimes by using flattery
caldera - (noun) a crater formed by the collapse of a volcano’s cone (derived from the Spanish word caldron)
caliph - (noun) a spiritual and political leader in Islam who acts as the successor of the prophet Muhammad
caliphate - (noun) a government that operates in accordance with the laws and traditions of Islam and is ruled by a caliph
callous - (adjective) showing cruel disregard or an unsympathetic attitude towards others
canopic jar - (noun) a jar used during the Egyptian mummification process to store the internal organs of a deceased person
cape - (noun) a narrow peninsula that forms a point and extends out into a sea or ocean
capillary - (noun) a tiny blood vessel that carries oxygen and nutrients to cells
capital - (noun) a city where a country's head of government is located Note- It can also refer to wealth in the form of money, stocks, bonds, or property that is held by a business or person
capitol - (noun) a building that houses the legislative branch of government
caravanserai - (noun) an inn with a central courtyard and exterior wall that was used by caravans in Asia and North Africa
cardinal directions - (noun) the four primary directions- north, east, south, and west
cardiopulmonary - (noun) involving or related to the heart and lungs
carillon - (noun) a musical instrument, usually located in a belfry, that uses at least 23 stationary bells and clappers to produce music
carpetbagger - (noun) a Northerner who traveled to the South after the US Civil War in order to gain political office or for financial gain
carrion - (noun) the rotting flesh of a dead animal
cartel - (noun) an organized association of businesses or countries that work to maintain high prices for their products and to restrict competition Note- The ultimate purpose of cartels is to increase their own profits. Cartels are seen in the United States as an unfair form of competition and are illegal.
cartographer - (noun) a person who makes maps and nautical charts
cartonnage - (noun) an ancient Egyptian mummy case that was created by tightly wrapping layers of linen or papyrus and glue
cartouche – (noun) an oblong carving or drawing that looks like a scroll, that was used in ancient Egypt and showed a pharaoh’s name
cascade - (noun) a waterfall
castrum - (noun) a Roman fortress or fortified camp
catacomb - (noun) an ancient underground Roman cemetery that was constructed in natural and man-made caves
catadromous - (adjective) creatures that spend their lives in fresh water but return to salt water to spawn
cataract - (noun) a large waterfall that contains a large amount of water and may form rapids below
catatonic - (adjective) expressionless and immobile; unresponsive
catchment area- (noun) the area where water drains from higher elevations and eventually is funneled into rivers and larger bodies of water
cathedral - (noun) a large church in a diocese that is the chief church of the bishop
cavalry - (noun) troops who historically have fought on horseback but in modern times drive mechanized vehicles
cede - (verb) to give up possession of a territory by means of a treaty sometimes by force
cella - (noun) the inner chamber of an ancient Greek or Roman temple that housed the hidden image of a diety
census - (noun) a count of the population in a specific area Note - The U.S. Constitution requires that a census be conducted every ten years to determine how many representatives will represent each state in the U.S. House of Representatives.
century - (noun) a time period of 100 years
cerebral cortex - (noun) the outer layer of the brain that allows for higher thought processes such language processing and learning
character - (noun) a person or creature in a story or play
charisma - (noun) the quality of being able to influence and inspire others; charm
charter - (noun) a royal grant of land and authority, given by a king, to colonize a distant territory
chastise - (verb) to severely reprimand or scold
chokepoint - (noun) a narrow sea channel that allows ships to move from one body of water to another. Note- Major chokepoints in the world include the Panama Canal, the Suez Canal, the Strait of Hormuz, and the Strait of Malacca.
cedilla - (noun) a mark, placed under a letter, to indicate that it is pronounced differently than usual
Note - The cedilla is used in the French, Portuguese, Romanian, and Turkish languages. Example- façade
circa - (preposition) around or about a certain year; approximately
circumnavigate - (verb) to steer a vessel or aircraft around an object
city-state - (noun) an independent nation that is comprised of a city and surrounding territory
civil case - (noun) a non-criminal court case that involves disputes between two or more parties
civil liberties - (noun) individual freedoms such as freedom of speech and expression
civil service – (noun) a government employment system in which the most qualified applicants compete for employment based on their merit Note- This system was developed to hire the best applicant and overcome the past practice of managers hiring their friends and relatives.
civil war - (noun) a conflict between two or more groups within a country
civilization - (noun) a culturally or technologically advanced human society
claim - (noun) a position, in the form of a statement, that a speaker or writer takes regarding a specific issue Note- Claims are usually supported by reasoning and evidence in order to persuade an audience.
clan - (noun) a large group of interrelated families that live in a specific area
cliché - (noun) an overused expression
climate - (noun) the weather conditions in an area over a long period of time
climax - (noun) the point in a story at which the tension or conflict is at its highest point Note- The action in the story builds up to the climax. You know you are the climax when you get to the point where you would never want the story to suddenly stop!
coalition - (noun) a group of political parties with similar goals (important in a parliamentary system)
cocoa butter - (noun) the theobroma oil that is extracted from the cacao seed; the vegetable fat taken from the cacao beans
cognitive - (adjective) of or related to a person's mental processes that allow for thinking, remembering, and reasoning
collegiate - (adjective) of or related to a college or university
colonnade - row of columns generally supporting a covered walkway or porch
command economy - an economic system in which the government decides how resources will be used and what will be produced
commence - (verb) to begin
commentary - a verbal or written expression of an opinion about a topic
commerce - large scale trade between companies or nations
commercial farming - the operation of farms for the primary purpose of growing crops and raising livestock to make a profit Note- This is the opposite of subsistence farming
commodity - something that has commercial value and can be transported in bulk
commodity exchange - a marketplace where members buy and sell commodities contracts with the goal of making a profit
Commonwealth of Nations - an association of the United Kingdom and countries that were once part of the British Empire
compass rose - a symbol on a map that shows the four cardinal directions of north, east, south, and west Note- Some display more information such as intermediate directions and degrees.
compulsory - required by regulations or law
confederation – (noun) an alliance of independent states
conflict - the struggle that the main character has to overcome in a story Note- The struggle can occur within the central character (internal struggle), another character in the story, or even something larger like society or nature.
confluence - the place where two rivers flow together
congregate - (verb) to come together in a group
connotation - (noun) ideas, emotions, and meanings that are associated with a word that are different than the literal meaning
conquistador - (noun) a Spanish term for conquerors who explored or colonized the Americas beginning in the 16th century
conscientious - careful and thorough in completing a task
consent decree - (noun) an order that is issued by a judge that is based on an agreement between two parties in a lawsuit Note- Parties involved in a consent decree usually negotiate the terms of a consent decree to avoid costly legal fees and litigation
conservation - the preservation, management, and restoration of the natural environment
consortium - an association of companies that combine their resources to achieve a goal
conspicuous - clearly visible and likely to attract attention
constituent - (noun) a citizen within a geographical area who is entitled to vote for government candidates
constitution - (noun) a written document that outlines the basic laws and principles that are used to govern a country
consul - (noun) one of two chief magistrates who was elected for a term of one year during the Roman Republic
Note- The two consuls were the highest positions in the Roman government.
consumer - (noun) a person who buys goods and services
contour lines - (noun) lines on map that show areas of equal elevation
contraction - (noun) a word produced by connecting two words and inserting an apostrophe to make it shorter Note- The first part of the new word contains all of the original letters and one or more letters from the second word are replaced with an apostrophe.
controversy - (noun) a conflict or disagreement regarding a particular issue or decision
corbicula - (noun) the pollen basket on the hind leg of certain species of bee that is used to carry pollen
cordial - (adjective) friendly and pleasant in a polite way
cornice - (noun) decorative molding located where the wall meets the ceiling or roof
cosmopolitan - (adjective) having many foreign influences; worldly
countenance - (noun) a person's facial expression
coup - (noun) the overthrow and replacement of a country's government by military forces
couplet - (noun) a pair of successive lines in a poem that rhyme
craftsman - (noun) skilled workers who work with their hands; artisans Examples- carpenters, potters, goldsmiths, glass makers, etc.
craven - (adjective) lacking any courage; cowardly
crude oil - (noun) petroleum that has been taken from the ground but not refined
cultivate - (verb) to plant and grow crops for harvest Note- Cultivate can also refers to the raising of certain creatures such as silkworms and oysters.
culture - (noun) a learned system of shared beliefs and ways of doing things that guides a person’s daily behavior
cultural diffusion - (noun) the movement of ideas and traditions from one place to another
cuneiform – (noun) an ancient writing system, developed in Mesopotamia and Persia, that used wedge-shaped symbols to convey meaning
currency - (noun) coin and paper money
custom - (noun) a cultural practice or way of doing something that is specific to a group or country
D
dateline - (noun) information at the beginning of a news article that states when and where it was written
debris - (noun) the broken pieces of an object that remain after an explosion, crash, or fall
deceive - (verb) to intentionally cause another person to believe something that is not true
decorum - (noun) behavior that is proper and polite
decrepit - (adjective) worn out or run-down due to old age or neglect
deforestation - (noun) the destruction or loss of forests
deity - (noun) a god or goddess
delta - (noun) deposits of sediment at the mouth of a river that often resembles a triangle
democracy - (noun) a political system in which a country's people elects their leaders and rule by majority Note- Direct democracy and indirect democracy are two major types of democracy.
demonstrative pronoun - (noun) pronouns that point out people or things that are near or far Examples- this, that, these, and those
demotic - (noun) an ancient Egyptian language and cursive script that was used by the common people
desalination - the removal of salt from seawater, usually by the use of reverse osmosis, to make the water safe for drinking Note- Desalination requires the use of a lot of electricity and thus it is an expensive way to get potable water.
descend - to move from a higher position to a lower position; to go down
desert - an area that receives less than 10 inches of rain per year
desertification - the gradual transition from dry grasslands to desert
desolate - (adjective) barren and uninhabited
devise – (verb) to create a plan or procedure for completing a task
dhow - a traditional boat that is used in the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea that has a lateen-rigged sail and one or more masts Note- Modern dhows also have motors.
dialogue - a conversation between characters in a story
diaspora - (noun) a group of people who have moved away from their original country and spread out to other countries
Diaspora - (noun) Jews who have left Palestine and spread out around the world
diction – (noun) the words that a writer choses to effectively tell a story or to make a point
Diet - (noun) the Parliament of Japan
diligent - (adjective) focused persistence and attention to complete a task or goal correctly
diminutive - (adjective) very small
dirge - (noun) a mournful funeral song or hymn
discourse - (noun) verbal or written communication about a specific topic
disenfranchise - (verb) to deprive a person the legal right to vote
displaced persons - (noun) people who have fled their homes due to natural disasters or war and are forced to live in another place
disposable income - (noun) personal income available to spend on consumer goods after taxes, retirement contributions, and other expenses are subtracted
diverge - (verb) to move in a different direction; to branch off
domestic - related to or originating from within a country (opposite of international)
dormant - (adjective) not showing signs of activity or movement
draft (or draught) - (noun) the depth of a ship's keel under the surface of the water when it is fully loaded
dreary - (adjective) bleak or gloomy
drought - (noun) long periods of time without rain and/or a major decrease in yearly rainfall
due process - (noun) the legal process that ensures citizens are treated in accordance with established laws and rights
dwelling - (noun) a shelter where people live; a home
dynasty - (noun) powerful government rulers who pass their positions and authority on to new generations of their own families
debris - (noun) the broken pieces of an object that remain after an explosion, crash, or fall
deceive - (verb) to intentionally cause another person to believe something that is not true
decorum - (noun) behavior that is proper and polite
decrepit - (adjective) worn out or run-down due to old age or neglect
deforestation - (noun) the destruction or loss of forests
deity - (noun) a god or goddess
delta - (noun) deposits of sediment at the mouth of a river that often resembles a triangle
democracy - (noun) a political system in which a country's people elects their leaders and rule by majority Note- Direct democracy and indirect democracy are two major types of democracy.
demonstrative pronoun - (noun) pronouns that point out people or things that are near or far Examples- this, that, these, and those
demotic - (noun) an ancient Egyptian language and cursive script that was used by the common people
desalination - the removal of salt from seawater, usually by the use of reverse osmosis, to make the water safe for drinking Note- Desalination requires the use of a lot of electricity and thus it is an expensive way to get potable water.
descend - to move from a higher position to a lower position; to go down
desert - an area that receives less than 10 inches of rain per year
desertification - the gradual transition from dry grasslands to desert
desolate - (adjective) barren and uninhabited
devise – (verb) to create a plan or procedure for completing a task
dhow - a traditional boat that is used in the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea that has a lateen-rigged sail and one or more masts Note- Modern dhows also have motors.
dialogue - a conversation between characters in a story
diaspora - (noun) a group of people who have moved away from their original country and spread out to other countries
Diaspora - (noun) Jews who have left Palestine and spread out around the world
diction – (noun) the words that a writer choses to effectively tell a story or to make a point
Diet - (noun) the Parliament of Japan
diligent - (adjective) focused persistence and attention to complete a task or goal correctly
diminutive - (adjective) very small
dirge - (noun) a mournful funeral song or hymn
discourse - (noun) verbal or written communication about a specific topic
disenfranchise - (verb) to deprive a person the legal right to vote
displaced persons - (noun) people who have fled their homes due to natural disasters or war and are forced to live in another place
disposable income - (noun) personal income available to spend on consumer goods after taxes, retirement contributions, and other expenses are subtracted
diverge - (verb) to move in a different direction; to branch off
domestic - related to or originating from within a country (opposite of international)
dormant - (adjective) not showing signs of activity or movement
draft (or draught) - (noun) the depth of a ship's keel under the surface of the water when it is fully loaded
dreary - (adjective) bleak or gloomy
drought - (noun) long periods of time without rain and/or a major decrease in yearly rainfall
due process - (noun) the legal process that ensures citizens are treated in accordance with established laws and rights
dwelling - (noun) a shelter where people live; a home
dynasty - (noun) powerful government rulers who pass their positions and authority on to new generations of their own families
E
echinus - (noun) 1. a sea urchin 2) a rounded molding between the shaft and abacus of Doric columns
ecology - the branch of biology concerned with the relationships of organisms and their environment
economics - a social science related to production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
economy - activities, goods, and services that are designed to provide people with jobs, consumer goods, and profit
ecotourism - the practice of using an area's natural environment to attract tourists
eerie - (adjective) mysterious and frightening; spooky
effigy - (noun) a sculpture or representation of a person
effluent - the release of waste material into the environment (effluent pollutants include waste water, industrial waste, sewage, and smoke)
elaborate – (verb) to add more details and information
elevation - (noun) the height of the land above sea level
ellipsis - (noun) a series of three dots that indicate part of sentence or quote has been shortened
emancipate - (verb) to release from restraint, control, or influence; liberate
embellish - (verb) to make something, such as an anecdote, more interesting by exaggerating or by adding details that may not be true
ember - (noun) a burning piece of wood or coal that is glowing with heat
emigrate - (verb) a verb meaning to leave one's own country to live in another country
empathy - (noun) the ability to identify with another person's feelings or experience
emphatic -(adjective) expressing something in a definite and forceful way
empire – (noun) a powerful society or nation that has expanded beyond its original borders to dominate other people and territories
empirical - (noun) confirmed by direct observation or experience Note- Empirical is the opposite of theory.
enchanted - (adjective) affected by or under a magic spell
encomienda - (noun) a land grant, given by the Spanish King to a colonist, that included the right to force the Native Americans to pay tribute or perform labor
engrossed - (verb) completely absorbed in a task or activity; captivated
enigma - (noun) a challenging problem that is difficult to solve; a mystery
entreat - (verb) to earnestly plead for someone to do something
ephemeral - (adjective) lasting for a short period of time
epic – (noun) long poems that were created in ancient times that usually focused on the struggles of heroes and civilizations
epicenter - (noun) the point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
epidemic - (noun) a widespread outbreak of disease in a country or region
epilogue – (noun) a short statement or text at the end of a book that comments on the book’s conclusion
epitaph - (noun) words, often inscribed on a tombstone, that are written about a person who has died
equator - the longest line of latitude that circles the earth at 0˚ perpendicular to the Earth's axis
equatorial - of or related to the location of the equator on the earth's surface
erg - a large area of shifting sand in the Sahara Desert (ergs are also referred to sand seas)
epiphany - a sudden understanding, awareness, or realization
erosion - (noun) the wearing away of rock or dirt by water, wind, or ice.
escarpment – (noun) a long, steep slope, on the edge of a plateau
esoteric - (adjective) likely to be understood or appreciated by only a select few with specific knowledge or interests
estuary - (noun) the area where fresh water from a river mixes with salt water from a sea or ocean
ethnology - (noun) a branch of anthropology that studies and records the history and development of cultures
etymology - (noun) the study of the origin and history of words
evidence - (noun) details, facts, and quotes that support a claim or answer a question
evident - (adjective) easily to see and understand; obvious
exalted - an adjective used to describe a person of noble, accomplished, or exceptional status
excavate - (verb) to remove soil in order to expose artifacts or bones from the past
excerpt - (noun) a chapter or short passage taken from a story or book
exchange rate - the value of one country's currency when it is being traded for another country's currency
exclave - a portion of a country that is isolated from the main part and is surrounded by foreign countries (see below)
exclusive economic zone (EEZ) - a zone that is adjacent to a country's territorial sea and extends up to 200 nautical miles out to the high seas Note- A country has sovereign control of its EEZ including all natural resources located within, above, and below the water.
executive order - a directive by the President of the United States that allows for the management of the government and is enforced like a law Example- Executive Order 10834 The Flag of the United States - This executive order was made on August 21, 1959 on the day that Hawaii was admitted as a state. Executive Order 10834 specified the new design of the flag and revoked Executive Order 10798.
exodus – a mass departure of people
exports - goods and services that are sent to other countries to be sold for a profit
exposition - the beginning of a story where the reader learns about the setting and characters
expository writing - an essay that explains an issue to a reader and contains a thesis, supporting evidence, and a conclusion
extant - (adjective) not destroyed and lost over a long period of time; surviving
ecology - the branch of biology concerned with the relationships of organisms and their environment
economics - a social science related to production, distribution, and consumption of goods and services
economy - activities, goods, and services that are designed to provide people with jobs, consumer goods, and profit
ecotourism - the practice of using an area's natural environment to attract tourists
eerie - (adjective) mysterious and frightening; spooky
effigy - (noun) a sculpture or representation of a person
effluent - the release of waste material into the environment (effluent pollutants include waste water, industrial waste, sewage, and smoke)
elaborate – (verb) to add more details and information
elevation - (noun) the height of the land above sea level
ellipsis - (noun) a series of three dots that indicate part of sentence or quote has been shortened
emancipate - (verb) to release from restraint, control, or influence; liberate
embellish - (verb) to make something, such as an anecdote, more interesting by exaggerating or by adding details that may not be true
ember - (noun) a burning piece of wood or coal that is glowing with heat
emigrate - (verb) a verb meaning to leave one's own country to live in another country
empathy - (noun) the ability to identify with another person's feelings or experience
emphatic -(adjective) expressing something in a definite and forceful way
empire – (noun) a powerful society or nation that has expanded beyond its original borders to dominate other people and territories
empirical - (noun) confirmed by direct observation or experience Note- Empirical is the opposite of theory.
enchanted - (adjective) affected by or under a magic spell
encomienda - (noun) a land grant, given by the Spanish King to a colonist, that included the right to force the Native Americans to pay tribute or perform labor
engrossed - (verb) completely absorbed in a task or activity; captivated
enigma - (noun) a challenging problem that is difficult to solve; a mystery
entreat - (verb) to earnestly plead for someone to do something
ephemeral - (adjective) lasting for a short period of time
epic – (noun) long poems that were created in ancient times that usually focused on the struggles of heroes and civilizations
epicenter - (noun) the point on the earth’s surface directly above the focus of an earthquake
epidemic - (noun) a widespread outbreak of disease in a country or region
epilogue – (noun) a short statement or text at the end of a book that comments on the book’s conclusion
epitaph - (noun) words, often inscribed on a tombstone, that are written about a person who has died
equator - the longest line of latitude that circles the earth at 0˚ perpendicular to the Earth's axis
equatorial - of or related to the location of the equator on the earth's surface
erg - a large area of shifting sand in the Sahara Desert (ergs are also referred to sand seas)
epiphany - a sudden understanding, awareness, or realization
erosion - (noun) the wearing away of rock or dirt by water, wind, or ice.
escarpment – (noun) a long, steep slope, on the edge of a plateau
esoteric - (adjective) likely to be understood or appreciated by only a select few with specific knowledge or interests
estuary - (noun) the area where fresh water from a river mixes with salt water from a sea or ocean
ethnology - (noun) a branch of anthropology that studies and records the history and development of cultures
etymology - (noun) the study of the origin and history of words
evidence - (noun) details, facts, and quotes that support a claim or answer a question
evident - (adjective) easily to see and understand; obvious
exalted - an adjective used to describe a person of noble, accomplished, or exceptional status
excavate - (verb) to remove soil in order to expose artifacts or bones from the past
excerpt - (noun) a chapter or short passage taken from a story or book
exchange rate - the value of one country's currency when it is being traded for another country's currency
exclave - a portion of a country that is isolated from the main part and is surrounded by foreign countries (see below)
exclusive economic zone (EEZ) - a zone that is adjacent to a country's territorial sea and extends up to 200 nautical miles out to the high seas Note- A country has sovereign control of its EEZ including all natural resources located within, above, and below the water.
executive order - a directive by the President of the United States that allows for the management of the government and is enforced like a law Example- Executive Order 10834 The Flag of the United States - This executive order was made on August 21, 1959 on the day that Hawaii was admitted as a state. Executive Order 10834 specified the new design of the flag and revoked Executive Order 10798.
exodus – a mass departure of people
exports - goods and services that are sent to other countries to be sold for a profit
exposition - the beginning of a story where the reader learns about the setting and characters
expository writing - an essay that explains an issue to a reader and contains a thesis, supporting evidence, and a conclusion
extant - (adjective) not destroyed and lost over a long period of time; surviving