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    • Glossary A - E
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Glossary M - R

M

macabre - (adjective) disturbing and morbid

machination - (noun) a plot or calculated scheme 

magnitude - (noun) a measurement, recorded by a seismograph, of  the energy released from an earthquake

magnetic declination - (noun) the angle between true north (the direction of the geographic north pole) and magnetic north (the northern direction on a compass)  Note- This is sometimes referred to as magnetic variation

maiden - (noun) a girl or unmarried woman

malevolent - (adjective) displaying evilness and viciousness toward others

malicious - (adjective) showing or intending to do harm

mammoth - (adjective) gigantic; huge

mandate - (noun) a command or official order to do something

mandatory - (noun) required by rule or law

maniacal – (adjective) extremely wild and out of control; crazed

Manifest Destiny - (noun) a widely held belief in the 1800s that Americans would inevitably settle and govern from coast to coast   

manumission – (noun)  the act of freeing a slave or slaves; emancipation

manumit - (verb) to release a slave or slaves; emancipate

map scale - (noun) the ratio of distance shown on a map and the actual distance on the ground  Example- If a distance were shown on a map to be 1:1 the map would be the same size as the place it represents!  So map makers use map scale to reflect large areas with smaller maps.  If you see a map that shows a one centimeter segment with a ratio of 1:10,000, it means that each centimeter on the map is equal to 10,000 centimeters.

market economy - (noun) an economy in which consumers ultimately determine what is to be produced by buying or not buying certain goods and services (supply and demand)

martial law - (noun) the temporary suspension of civilian law that results in military control of all government functions

matsuri - (noun) a Japanese festival that has historically been associated with Shinto shrines and celebrations

matriarch - (noun) a woman who is recognized as the leader of a family or group (due to age or experience)

mausoleum - (noun) a tomb; a building that houses a tomb or tombs and is usually decorated ornately

mayor - (noun) the elected head of government at the city level

melancholy - (noun) a state of sadness or depression

member states - (noun) countries that belong to the United Nations and have agreed to follow the UN Charter

memoir - (noun) writing that is drawn from a writer's personal experience and knowledge of the past 

menagerie - (noun) a personal collection of wild animals that are kept in captivity and sometimes displayed to the public 

mercantilism - (noun) a closed colonial economic system, whereby colonizers would collect raw materials from colonies, manufacture products, and then send the products back to the colonies to be purchased

mercenary - (noun) a professional soldier who is paid to work for a foreign country

mercurial - (adjective) characterized by sudden and unpredictable change in mood; volatile
 
meritocracy - (noun) a system of hiring or promotion whereby the most talented person is selected 

Mesopotamia - (noun) a word that is derived from Greek that means "the land between the rivers"  Note- This refers to the Tigris River and the Euphrates River. 

metaphor - (noun) a figure of speech that states one object is another object, not literally, but in order to show a likeness or an analogy 
​                     Example - He is a shining star.       Example- Her voice is music to his ears.     Example- You are my sunshine!


meticulous - (adjective) characterized by excessively careful and precise attention to detail while completing a task

metope - a square space that usually contains a frieze between Doric triglyphs
​

Middle Ages - (noun) the period of European history between the fall of Rome in 476 AD to the beginning of the Renaissance in the 1300s  Note- This period is also referred to as the Medieval Period.

Middle East - a large region that stretches from Morocco in northern Africa to Pakistan in southwest Asia  Note- Most, but not all of the people in this region, practice Islam and speak Arabic  (Go to the Middle East page for more details)     

mien - (noun) a person's bearing and manner 

migrant - a person who leaves his or her country in order to find work or improve their economic situation

milieu - (noun) the social or environmental setting where an event occurs

militia (noun) civilian volunteers who train for military service in order to help their country during national emergencies

millennium - (noun) a time period of 1,000 years

minaret - (noun) a long slender tower, next to a mosque, that has a small balcony where a muezzin calls Muslims to prayer  

minutemen - (noun) colonial Americans who volunteered to be ready fight at a minute's notice during the Revolutionary War 

mission - (noun) Catholic settlements created in the Americas to convert Native Americans to Christianity

mnemonic - (noun) a memory technique that uses patterns of associations, ideas, or letters to remember something

monarchy - (noun) a government system whereby a country is ruled by a king or queen

monolith - (noun)n a large rock standing by itself

monologue - (noun) a long speech or presentation by a person 

monotheism - (noun) belief in a single god 

mood - (noun) in literature, the feeling created in a reader as the story is being read

moot - (adjective) lacking relevance or significance 

moral - (noun) a life-lesson that can be learned from a fable or other story 

mosaic - (noun) a picture that is created by placing and arranging small pieces of glass, stone, or tile on a prepared surface  Note- Mosaics were frequently used in architecture and art by the ancient Greek and Roman civilizations.

mosque - a Muslim place of worship

mouth - the location where a river ends and empties into a larger body of water (sea, ocean, or another river)

muezzin – a person who calls Muslims to prayer five times a day 

Muslim - a person who is a follower of Islam

myth - a traditional story, usually involving gods or superhuman characters, that focuses on human flaws, history, or nature​

N

nadir - (noun) the lowest or worst point in a life, career, or history

naïve - lacking life experience or good judgment and willing to believe that another person’s intentions are good  

narcissism - (noun) excessive admiration and interest of oneself  

nari - (noun) a Russian term meaning bed
​

narrative - (noun) writing that describes a series of events or tells a story 

narrative poetry - (noun) poetry that tells a story

nationalism - extreme national pride and patriotism by a citizen of a country

nationalize – to take over ownership and control of private industry or companies by the national government Note- In many cases the private owners or stock holders are not compensated by the government.  Over the past century countries have nationalized steel, petroleum, fruit, transportation, and mineral companies around the world.  

natron - (noun) a mineral consisting of hydrated sodium carbonate that was used in ancient Egypt to embalm the dead

natural rights - (noun) rights that all humans possess naturally and are not granted by governments
​
nautical chart - (noun) a map used by mariners that depicts coastal details, water depth, underwater obstructions, and aids to navigation that are necessary for safe navigation

nave -  (noun) the central part of a church building where the pews are located and face the altar

navigable - (adjective) a river or channel that has enough depth and width for ships to travel

nebulous - (adjective) lacking form or undefined; vague

nectar - (noun) a sweet liquid that flowers produce to encourage pollination by insects 

nemes - (noun) a stripped headdress that was worn by pharaohs in ancient Egypt

neutral - (adjective)  characterized by not taking sides in a conflicts between two opposing adversaries  

nictitating membrane - (noun) a translucent membrane that acts as a third eyelid to protect the eye

nimble - (adjective)  moving or thinking in a quick and agile manner

noble - (noun) a wealthy and powerful person who has high status (in some earlier societies) 

nomad -  (noun) a person that survives by moving from place to place (usually to follow wild herds or to find new grasslands for their domesticated animals)

noun - (noun) a person, place, quality, or thing

O

oasis - (noun) an area of the desert that has access to water and usually forms above an aquifer

obeisance - (noun) deference and respect that is shown to someone

obelisk - (noun) a tall stone pillar, usually with a pyramid shape at the top, that serves as a monument  

odious - (adjective) evil or unpleasant to the point of arousing hatred; detestable   

ominous - (adjective)  giving the impression that something bad or threatening is about to happen; foreboding
​
omniscient - (adjective) all-knowing  Note- The third person narrator is sometimes said to be omniscient.

onomatopoeia - (noun) a word that is pronounced in a way that resembles it or the sound associated with it  Examples- bang, whine, ruff, oink, chirp, hiss, sizzle, and purr

opinion - (noun) a personal belief or judgment that is not substantiated with direct proof

optimistic - (adjective) characterized by positive and hopeful feelings about the future 

opulent - (adjective) wealthy; affluent

oracle - (noun) a priest or priestess who is said to be able to communicate the words and wishes of the gods 

ornithology - (noun) the scientific study of birds

ossuary - (noun) a building or container where bones of the dead are deposited  Note- Bones are sometimes placed in an ossuary to make room for the newly deceased in a cemetery.  

ostracize - (verb)  to deliberately exclude from a group or society 

ostentatious - (adjective) characterized by conspicuous and showy appearance in order to attract attention

oxymoron – (noun)  a combination of two seemingly contradictory words used together to create an effect   Examples: deafening silence, act naturally, jumbo shrimp, open secret, and clearly confused

P

pagoda - (noun) a Buddhist temple that is composed of a multi-tiered tower structure 

palisade - (noun) a line of wooden stakes, fixed firmly the ground, that usually surround a fort or defensive position 

pampas - (noun) a term that describes the wide, grassy plains, located east of the Andes Mountains in South America

Panamax - (noun) a term that describes the largest ships that are able to fit through the Panama Canal (depth, width, length)

pandemic - (noun) a widespread outbreak of disease across the world

pantheon - (noun) 1: a temple dedicated to the gods  2: a group of people who are respected for their accomplishments in a particular field or endeavor

papyrus - (noun) a tall plant (Cyperus papyrus) that grows in or near the water in North Africa and was used by ancient Egyptians to make the first form of paper

pariah - (noun) an outcast

parliamentary government - (noun) a system of government in which the executive power (the prime minister and cabinet) is made up of members of the legislature

passage - (noun) a portion of a written work that is analyzed or used as an example

patent - (noun) formal recognition of ownership, granted by a government, for an invention or intellectual property

patrician - (noun) a member of an aristocratic family in ancient Rome

patron - (noun)  a store customer

pectoral - (noun) an ancient Egyptian collar or piece of large jewelry that was worn over the chest for decoration or protection  

pedestal - (noun) the structure at the base of a statue or column 

pediment - (noun) the triangular upper portion at the front of a classical building that usually includes relief sculptures

pen name (nom de plume) - (noun) a name used by a writer instead of their real name

peninsula - (noun)a piece of land with water on three sides

per capita - per unit of population; per person

pernicious - (adjective)  causing harm in a gradual or subtle way

persecute - (verb) to treat someone unfairly because of their beliefs

perseverance - (noun) persistence in completing a task or goal, to the best of your ability, even when it becomes difficult  

persevere - (verb) to persist in completing a task or goal, to the best of your ability, even when it becomes difficult

personification - (noun) a figure of speech in which an animal or object is given human characteristics

pessimistic - (adjective) characterized by negative and gloomy feelings about the future

pestilence - (noun) an infectious disease that spreads quickly and usually kills its victims  Example- bubonic plague  

petition - (noun) a formal request to the government, usually made by a group of people, to change a policy or law

petrified - (adjective) frightened to the point of not being able to move; terrified

petulant - (adjective) bad-tempered and grumpy; cranky

pharaoh – (noun) the title of rulers in ancient Egypt

phobia – (noun) an irrational or extreme fear of something

physical map (physical geography) - (noun) a map that shows major land forms and natural features (deserts, valleys, mountains, rivers,  lakes, etc.) Note- State and country borders are usually included on physical maps to reflect the locations of the various land forms.  

physiology - (noun) a branch of biology that focuses on the study of living organisms and how they function  

pictograph – (noun) a drawn picture that represents and reflects an object or idea 

pied - (noun) a term that usually refers to birds that at have two or more patches of color

pilfer - (verb) to steal

placid - (adjective) serene and peaceful; calm 

plague – (noun) an epidemic disease, caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis, that is  transmitted by the bite of an infected flea

plantation - (noun) a farm where crops such as cotton, sugarcane, and similar crops are grown on a large scale 

plaster - (noun) a smooth paste, that is usually made of sand, water, and lime (to bind it together), that is applied to walls and dries to form a hard surface  Note- Modern plaster often replaces lime with gypsum and is sometimes referred to as plaster of paris.

plateau - (noun) an elevated flatland on Earth’s surface

plebeian - (noun) the term for a commoner (craftsmen, farmers, merchants, soldiers, etc.) in ancient Rome

plethora - (noun) a large amount of something; a lot

plinth - (noun) the heavy base that supports a statue or column

plot - (noun) the series of events that make up a story

plummet – (verb) to fall or drop a long distance at a high speed

poacher - (noun) a person who hunts animals illegally

pod - (noun) a group of marine animals (usually whales)

point of view - (noun)  the perspective from which a narrator tells a story    
 

political map (political geography) - (noun) a map that shows government and man-made boundaries such as national, state, and territorial borders, as well as major cities and towns   Note- Political maps may also label major bodies of water in addition to the man-made boundaries.  Political maps usually show countries that border each other in different colors, or states that border each other in different colors.

politician - (noun) a person who is voted into a government position

poll tax - (noun) a tax levied on registered voters as a prerequisite for voting in an election   Note- The Twenty-fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, ratified in 1964, outlawed the use of poll taxes in elections for federal officeholders. 

polyglot - (adjective) fluent in multiple languages 

polytheism - (noun) belief in two or more gods 

ponder - (verb) to think about or reflect on something 

population density - (noun) the average number of people living in a square kilometer of a city or country

popular sovereignty - (noun) the idea that the authority of the government is derived from and subject to the will of the people 

population pyramid - (noun) a diagram that shows the distribution of population groups for a specific country Note- The data in these diagrams often resemble a pyramid shape.

portal - (noun) a large, usually decorative entrance, to a cathedral, castle, or other large structure 
Note- The modern use of the word also refers to an internet set that allows you to access a variety of sites and information 


portico - (noun) an entrance to a building or covered walkway supported by regularly spaced columns  Note- Porticoes were an important part of Greek architecture where they were used at entrances to many Greek temples.

portly - (adjective) fat; corpulent

possessive pronoun - (noun) a pronoun that shows ownership  Note- The possessive pronouns her, his, its, my, our, their, and your are used before nouns in a sentence.  The possessive pronouns hers, his, its, mine, ours, theirs, and yours can frequently appear at the end of a sentence and can be used in place of a noun.  

posterity - (noun) future generations

posthumous - (adjective) occurring or happening after a person's death

potable - (noun) water that is safe to drink without risk to health
​
potential - (noun) the qualities and abilities that a person possesses that might be used to achieve future success
  
preamble - (noun) an introduction to a constitution or law

precedent – (noun) a principle, action, or decision that serves as the example in similar subsequent circumstances

predicate - (noun) the part of a sentence or clause that contains the verb and provides information about the subject  Example- The team rested after the game.
​
preeminent - (adjective) distinguished and accomplished in a career or area of study 

preen - (verb) 1: to dress and spend time making oneself look attractive or handsome  2: (birds) to groom and arrange feathers using its bill

prefix - (noun) a letter or group of letters that are added to the beginning of a word to change the meaning  Note- The prefix un, meaning not / opposite of, is  the most common prefix in the English language.

prehistory - (noun) the time before humans began to write and record history

premonition - (noun) a strong feeling or sudden realization that something is about to happen

president -(noun) the chief executive at the national level

presidio - (noun) a Spanish term for a military fortress; a garrison 

primary source - (noun) a recording or document that gives a first-hand account of a historical event or time period 
​                              Examples-
letters, autobiographies, diaries, maps, newspapers, audio recordings, and visual recordings
                            
Prime Meridian - (noun) an imaginary grid line that lies at zero degrees longitude and passes through Greenwich, England

profit - (noun) the money earned by a business after all expenses have been paid  Note- Business expenses include taxes, employee wages, building costs, utilities, and supplies.

pronoun - (noun) a word that is used in place of a noun or another pronoun  Note- Pronouns often refer back to  antecedents. 

proper noun - (noun) a noun that names a specific person, location, or thing and begins with a capital letter   Note- Nouns that are not proper nouns are referred to as common nouns. 

prose - (noun) all forms of writing that are not written in verse form (such as poetry)

prosecute - (verb) to officially accuse a person committing a crime and taking him or her to court

prosperity - (noun) the state of being prosperous

prosperous - (adjective) a person who is financially successful and wealthy

protagonist - (noun) the central figure in a story (sometimes referred to as the hero or heroine)

pseudonym - (noun) a fictitious name that an author uses when publishing their work (instead of their real name)

pueblo - (noun) a Native American town, characterized by flat-roofed and adobe houses, in the southwestern United States

pugnacious - (adjective) eager and quick to quarrel or fight

pun - (noun) the use of words in a way that takes advantage of multiple possible meanings to convey humor  Example- Make like a tree and leave. 

purloin - (verb) to steal

Q

quaff - (verb) to drink something, especially alcohol, heartily 

quaint - (adjective) old-fashioned or unique in a pleasant way

quorum -  (noun) the number of senators that must be present in the Senate to conduct business

Quran – (noun) the holy book of Islam     

R

rabbi - (noun) a congregation leader and teacher in the Jewish faith

rabid - (adjective) fanatical and extreme action; overzealous 

rain forest - (noun) a warm, wet forest that receives more than 80 inches (203 centimeters) of rain per year

rain shadow -  (noun) the dry area on the leeward side of a mountain or mountain range

ratification - (noun) official approval (usually via voting) of a treaty or amendment to a constitution

ratify - (verb) to approve a treaty or amendment to a constitution

rattle - (verb) to make a series of fast knocking or sharp sounds

recalcitrant - (adjective) unwilling to obey and having an uncooperative attitude  

recession - (noun) a drop in a country's gross domestic product for two straight quarters (six months)

recharge - (noun) the process by which precipitation soaks down into the porous rock of an aquifer

reclamation - (noun) the filling of submerged areas, such as seas or rivers, with soil and similar materials to create dry land

Reconstruction – (noun) the post-Civil War era, between 1865 and 1877, when the U.S. reunified and underwent major social and political change  

recuperate - (verb) to recover from an illness, injury, or medical procedure

redress - (verb) to correct or make right; to remedy

redundant - no longer needed; superfluous

refinery - a facility that processes natural gas or petroleum into a usable form

reflexive pronoun - (noun) a pronoun that follows a preposition or verb, refers back to an earlier noun or pronoun, and ends in either self or selves  

refugee - (noun) a person who has fled their country due to persecution, violence, or war

refute - (verb) to argue or provide evidence against a theory, idea, or claim

region - (noun) an area of the Earth’s surface whose people share common identifiable characteristics such as economic systems, physical geography, political systems, or cultural traditions

regent - (noun) a person who temporarily rules in place of a king or queen  Note- This usually occurs if the monarch is ill, absent, or is too young to rule on their own. 

regress - (verb) to deteriorate to a less developed or less advanced state

reign - (noun) the time during which  a king or queen rules  

relative location - (noun) a general location description or the approximate geographic location of one location to another location

relic - (noun) a cherished bone or object that once belonged to a martyr or saint   

relief - (noun) a sculpture in which the shapes of people or other objects are raised above the flat surface

reliquary - (noun) a case or shrine that contains sacred relics  

reminisce - (verb) to recall and think about past events and experiences

Renaissance – (noun) a period of European history, from approximately 1300 to 1600, when there was a revival of Roman and Greek art and ideas  
​Note- Although the word Renaissance is derived from French, this period of history is generally assumed to have begun in Florence, Italy. 

​
repeal - (verb) to formally withdraw and annul a government law, policy, or tax

repetition - (noun) the act of repeating something

republic - (noun) a democratic form of government in which the citizens elect representatives to act on their behalf under a constitution   Note- The concept of a republic has its roots in the Roman Republic.  The word republic comes from Latin and means “public affairs.”

republicanism - (noun) a government that is based on the concept of a republic

reservoir - (noun) a man-made lake that is usually created by building a dam on a river

resolution - (noun) the end of the story (happily ever after... or not)

respite - (noun) a short period of rest from a difficult or unpleasant task

restricted suffrage - (noun) voting rights that are granted to citizens but are limed by a person's gender, employment status, whether the person is in the military or police, or if they have met residency requirements

retinue - (noun) a group of assistants and servants who assist a high ranking person

revive - (verb) to bring someone or something back to life or consciousness

revolutionary war - (noun) a war that brings about a major change in the form of government and leadership of a country 

rhetorical question - (noun) a question that is not meant to be answered   Note- The rhetorical questions are usually asked to make a point.

rhyme - (noun) poetry or songs that contain the repetition of sounds

ridicule - (verb) to use unkind language or actions that are meant to make a person look ignorant or stupid  

righteous - (adjective) morally right or justifiable

rising action - (noun) the series of events that build up to the climax of a story

river basin - (noun) the area where water drains from higher elevations in small streams and rivers and eventually into one very large river   Note- The entire area that drains into one large river is referred to by the name of the major river.  Example- Arakawa River Basin 

river delta - (noun) deposits of sediment at the mouth of river that often resemble triangles

Roman Empire - (noun) an empire, centered in Rome, that lasted from 27 BC to 476 AD.  Note- Roman Emperor Theodosius divided the Roman Empire into two parts in 395 AD.   The Western Roman Empire, ruled from Rome, lasted until Rome was sacked in 476 AD. The Eastern Roman Empire, ruled from Byzantium, lasted until 1453 AD.  

roost - (noun) a place, usually safely away from predators, where birds rest or sleep

roost - (verb) a word, usually referring to birds, meaning to rest or sleep

rose window - (noun) a decorative, circular-shaped window, that usually contains stained glass   Note- Used In Gothic architecture

royal colony - (noun) a colony, also referred to as a crown colony, that is under the direct control of the English monarch and administered by a royal governor

rung - (noun) a horizontal support that supports a foot on a ladder

rural - (adjective) a term used to describe areas that are located outside of cities (opposite of urban)
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