Geography Basics
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What is geography?
Well, it depends on who you ask. Geography is such an exciting subject because it encompasses so many different areas. Here are five major types of geography: physical geography, political geography, human geography, economic geography, and historical geography. In fact, we could add several more types if we included more specific areas of study.
Examples of physical geography include mountains, rivers, seas, etc.. Examples of political geography include cities, states, countries and other locations that have been created by people. Just as there are different types of geography, there are many different definitions of geography. For our purposes we are going to use a simple definition that can be learned easily. Geography is defined as the study of Earth’s physical, political, and cultural features. The word geography can actually be broken down into several word parts that convey meaning.
“geo” means "Earth” “graph” means “write” “y” means “characterized by” |
Continents - The Big Seven
Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America and South America
There are seven generally recognized and accepted continents in the world. The word "generally" is used because some people consider Asia and Europe to be one continent- the Eurasian continent. Those who think that Europe is a distinct continent usually use the Ural Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea as the border between Europe and Asia. This map convention recognizes most of Turkey (the Anatolian Peninsula) as being in Asia, but the portion of the opposite side of the Bosporus Strait and Sea of Marmara, known as Thrace, as being located in Europe. The continent of Australia is sometimes referred to as Oceania. Although some locations are distant islands away from continental landmasses, they are usually grouped with or thought as being part of the closest continent. For example, most of the islands in the Caribbean Sea are described as being in North America.
Africa, Antarctica, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America and South America
There are seven generally recognized and accepted continents in the world. The word "generally" is used because some people consider Asia and Europe to be one continent- the Eurasian continent. Those who think that Europe is a distinct continent usually use the Ural Mountains, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea as the border between Europe and Asia. This map convention recognizes most of Turkey (the Anatolian Peninsula) as being in Asia, but the portion of the opposite side of the Bosporus Strait and Sea of Marmara, known as Thrace, as being located in Europe. The continent of Australia is sometimes referred to as Oceania. Although some locations are distant islands away from continental landmasses, they are usually grouped with or thought as being part of the closest continent. For example, most of the islands in the Caribbean Sea are described as being in North America.
Where is it?
This sounds like a easy question to answer. It is, but there are many different ways of answering it. You might use the four cardinal directions to describe a location: north, south, east, or west. But this is somewhat vague. In geography, we usually think of location in two different ways- relative location and absolute location.
Relative location can be defined as a general location description or the approximate geographic location of one location to another location.
The key word in this definition is approximate. For example, someone might ask you to meet them at the train station in Oxford. This sounds like a good place to meet, but where in the station will you actually meet? Other examples of relative location are: most highway signs, "two blocks over to the west," "five houses down," and "near the coast." Using a relative location is generally best used to describe locations that are familiar
to all of the people involved.
A better way to communicate is to use an absolute location. Absolute location can be defined as the exact geographic location (usually
described in terms of a specific address or geographic coordinates). For example, let’s say you wanted to send a birthday card to your grandmother. You need to use an absolute location so that it will arrive at your grandmother’s house, not simply the town she lives in. Writing that she lives “down near the mall” won’t work either because there likely hundreds of houses around the mall. So, whether you are meeting someone for an appointment or sending someone a letter, an absolute location is essential. Just remember, use a specific address.
This sounds like a easy question to answer. It is, but there are many different ways of answering it. You might use the four cardinal directions to describe a location: north, south, east, or west. But this is somewhat vague. In geography, we usually think of location in two different ways- relative location and absolute location.
Relative location can be defined as a general location description or the approximate geographic location of one location to another location.
The key word in this definition is approximate. For example, someone might ask you to meet them at the train station in Oxford. This sounds like a good place to meet, but where in the station will you actually meet? Other examples of relative location are: most highway signs, "two blocks over to the west," "five houses down," and "near the coast." Using a relative location is generally best used to describe locations that are familiar
to all of the people involved.
A better way to communicate is to use an absolute location. Absolute location can be defined as the exact geographic location (usually
described in terms of a specific address or geographic coordinates). For example, let’s say you wanted to send a birthday card to your grandmother. You need to use an absolute location so that it will arrive at your grandmother’s house, not simply the town she lives in. Writing that she lives “down near the mall” won’t work either because there likely hundreds of houses around the mall. So, whether you are meeting someone for an appointment or sending someone a letter, an absolute location is essential. Just remember, use a specific address.
Geographic coordinates are a second type of absolute location that will give a precise location. Geographic coordinates use invisible lines of longitude and latitude to describe a precise location. These locations are expressed using a series of numbers. Geographic coordinates, longitude and latitude, are usually described using degrees, minutes, and seconds. The concept of hemispheres is directly tied to the use of geographic coordinates. A hemisphere can be defined as “half of a sphere.” Two hemispheres come together to form a complete sphere.
Geographers divide the world into two sets of hemispheres. The first set of hemispheres divides our planet between a northern hemisphere and a southern hemisphere. The equator forms the boundary between the two hemispheres. The second set of hemispheres is occurs at the prime meridian. It divides the plant into an eastern hemisphere and a western hemisphere.
Geographers use a system of imaginary lines that form a mesh across the globe. These lines are called longitude and latitude. Latitude is defined as imaginary grid lines that run east-west and measure distance north and south of the equator.
Latitude lines are also called parallels because they never touch! The lines of latitude divide the world into degrees. The equator sits at zero degrees latitude. Since it sits in the middle of the globe, the equator is the longest line of latitude. Lines that are located north of the Equator are referred to as numerical degree and the words “North of the Equator.” These locations are located in the northern hemisphere. Lines that are located south of the Equator are referred to as the numerical degree and “South of the Equator.” These locations are located in the southern hemisphere.
Geographers divide the world into two sets of hemispheres. The first set of hemispheres divides our planet between a northern hemisphere and a southern hemisphere. The equator forms the boundary between the two hemispheres. The second set of hemispheres is occurs at the prime meridian. It divides the plant into an eastern hemisphere and a western hemisphere.
Geographers use a system of imaginary lines that form a mesh across the globe. These lines are called longitude and latitude. Latitude is defined as imaginary grid lines that run east-west and measure distance north and south of the equator.
Latitude lines are also called parallels because they never touch! The lines of latitude divide the world into degrees. The equator sits at zero degrees latitude. Since it sits in the middle of the globe, the equator is the longest line of latitude. Lines that are located north of the Equator are referred to as numerical degree and the words “North of the Equator.” These locations are located in the northern hemisphere. Lines that are located south of the Equator are referred to as the numerical degree and “South of the Equator.” These locations are located in the southern hemisphere.
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Lines of Longitude
Longitude is defined as imaginary grid lines that run between the North Pole and the South Pole. Lines of longitude are also referred to meridians. Here is an easy mnemonic tool to remember that longitude, and not latitude, begins and ends at the poles- Santa has a longitude way to travel from the North Pole! All of the lines of longitude are the same length since they all span the distance between the poles.
Zero degrees longitude passes through the Greenwich in London, United Kingdom. This is a very important line of longitude because it used to separate the Earth into the western and eastern hemispheres. All locations west of the Prime Meridian ( 0° ) are known as a numerical degree and the words "west longitude." These locations are in the western hemisphere. Locations that are located east of the Prime Meridian are known by a numerical degree and "east longitude." These locations are all in the eastern hemisphere. The eastern and western hemisphere boundary on the opposite of the planet is located at 180° longitude.
Longitude is defined as imaginary grid lines that run between the North Pole and the South Pole. Lines of longitude are also referred to meridians. Here is an easy mnemonic tool to remember that longitude, and not latitude, begins and ends at the poles- Santa has a longitude way to travel from the North Pole! All of the lines of longitude are the same length since they all span the distance between the poles.
Zero degrees longitude passes through the Greenwich in London, United Kingdom. This is a very important line of longitude because it used to separate the Earth into the western and eastern hemispheres. All locations west of the Prime Meridian ( 0° ) are known as a numerical degree and the words "west longitude." These locations are in the western hemisphere. Locations that are located east of the Prime Meridian are known by a numerical degree and "east longitude." These locations are all in the eastern hemisphere. The eastern and western hemisphere boundary on the opposite of the planet is located at 180° longitude.
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Time Zones- The lines of longitude, or meridians, are divided to reflect the 24 hours in a day. Every hour the Earth rotates 15° and will make a full circle of 360° in one day. The time zones of the world basically are divided along these 15° segments. Time Zone Question to Ponder - How do the men and women aboard the International Space Station determine the correct time in space?
The Five Oceans
Arctic Ocean
Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Southern Ocean
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Atlantic Ocean
Pacific Ocean
Indian Ocean
Southern Ocean
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Antarctica and the Arctic Ocean
In order to better understand Antarctica is important to understand the Arctic region first. Antarctica is a continent whereas the Arctic is not.
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The Arctic Ocean - The geographic location of the North Pole is located at 90 00 north latitude, 0 00 east longitude. Technically, you could just say that the North Pole is located at 90 00˚ north latitude. Since all lines of longitude end or begin at the geographic North Pole, any line of longitude that you give would be correct!
Many people don't realize that the two poles of the earth are very different. The area at the "top" of the earth is referred to as the "Arctic." |
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This area is covered by the smallest of the five oceans- the Arctic Ocean. It is located between the continents of North America, Europe, and Asia. Much of the Arctic is covered by ice throughout the year and portions of it melt during the Arctic summer.
It is important to remember that the Arctic region experiences summer when Antarctica is having winter season. The opposite of this is true when the Arctic is experiencing summer- Antarctica is The Arctic is unique in that it is home certain animals that are only found in the northern hemisphere. Perhaps the most famous of these are polar bears and walruses. The Arctic Circle located 66 degrees, 34 minutes north of the equator. This famous line of latitude is the latitude above which the sun does not set on the summer solstice, and does not rise on the winter solstice. Through the year it is sometimes possible to view the famous Aurora Borealis, better known as the "northern lights." Auroras are created as charged particles, moving away from the sun, collide with the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
It is important to remember that the Arctic region experiences summer when Antarctica is having winter season. The opposite of this is true when the Arctic is experiencing summer- Antarctica is The Arctic is unique in that it is home certain animals that are only found in the northern hemisphere. Perhaps the most famous of these are polar bears and walruses. The Arctic Circle located 66 degrees, 34 minutes north of the equator. This famous line of latitude is the latitude above which the sun does not set on the summer solstice, and does not rise on the winter solstice. Through the year it is sometimes possible to view the famous Aurora Borealis, better known as the "northern lights." Auroras are created as charged particles, moving away from the sun, collide with the Earth’s upper atmosphere.
Antarctica
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The Physical Geography of Antarctica
Now that you have a basic understanding of the Arctic it is time look at the opposite side of the planet- Antarctica. The geographic location of the South Pole is located at 90 00 south latitude, 0 00 east longitude. Technically, you could just say that the South Pole is located at 90 00˚ south latitude. Since all lines of longitude end or begin at the geographic South Pole, any line of longitude that you give would be correct! Unlike the Arctic, it is not an ocean but a continent. Antarctica holds four major continental records.
Ninety-eight percent of Antarctica is covered by ice year-round. The ice on Antarctica averages about 1,829 meters in thickness with a maximum thickness of about 4776 meters. Interestingly, the much of the ice on Antarctica lies below sea. The lowest point on Antarctica is located at the Bentley Subglacial Trench has an elevation of -2,540 meters. Antarctica's highest point is Vinson Massif and reaches a height of 4,897 meters. Surrounding Antarctica is a large ocean current called the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (also known as the West Wind Drift). This extremely important ocean current flows clockwise around Antarctica and is vital to marine organisms and the ecosystem in general. Many ice shelves are located along the coasts of Antarctica. An ice shelf is a sheet of ice that floats on polar coastal waters and is connected to land. Antarctica's ice shelves form as glaciers slowly move towards the Southern Ocean. The largest ice shelves can be very thick and are slow to melt. The two largest ice shelves on Antarctica are the Ronne Ice Shelf and the Ross Ice Shelf. The Ross Ice Shelf, located next to the Ross Sea, is the larger of the two and covers about 510,680 square kilometers. The Ronne Ice Shelf is the second major ice shelf and spans approximately 439 920 square kilometers. In addition to ice shelves there are other frozen areas of the Southern Ocean that surround the continent of Antarctica. The size of these frozen areas increases during the Antarctic winter and shrink during the Antarctic summer. Interestingly, ice that formed more than a year ago usually contains very low amounts of salt. This is because the salt does not freeze easily and instead, slowly sticks together and melts down to the sea. Tiny salt tunnels form as the salt moves to the bottom of the ice and creates an environment where algae can grow. Krill, tiny shrimp-like marine animals, then feed on the algae. The krill thrive with this abundant food supply and become part of the food chain for everything from fish to baleen whales. Antarctica's most famous residents, penguins, also feed on krill, as well as squid and other creatures. As shown above Antarctica is the windiest continent on earth. The more powerful winds that affect Antarctica are called katabatic (gravity driven) winds. This is caused by a air moving over the continent and that turns downward and moves out to the coast at high speed. High above even the katabatic winds you sometimes view aurora australis. These "southern lights" are the same as the "northern lights" and is created as charged particles, moving away from the sun, collide with the Earth’s upper atmosphere. Major Mineral Resources of Antarctica
This NASA photo shows stars and the aurora australis. It was taken aboard the ISS as it orbited 267 miles above the Indian Ocean.
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This NASA photograph shows Adalie
Penguins (Pygoscelis adeliae) on Antarctica's Tarabin
Peninsula. Several species of penguin call Antarctica home.
This NASA satellite photograph shows Antarctica's tallest peak - Vinson Massif.
The Japanese Maritime Self Defense Force ice breaker Shirase is shown docked at Yokosuka Naval Base in Kanagawa Prefecture. The vessel is used to resupply the Japanese research station
during Antarctica's summer months. Antarctica's
summer takes place December through February.
This NASA graphic shows the size of Antarctica when compared to the United States of America. Antarctica is about one and a half times the size of the USA.
This photograph, published by the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Aministration, shows krill in a dish. The scientific name for krill is Euphausia superba. If you look closely you will
notice green algae (phytoplankton) that was
consumed by the krill before they were caught. Krill are a critical part of the of the Antarctic ecosystem. Many creatures feed on krill and are then consumed by larger creatures.
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A Brief History of Antarctica
December 14, 1911 has gone down in history as the day that man first arrived at the geographic South Pole. The person who led the expedition was a Norwegian explorer named Roald Amundsen. He, along with four members of his team and approximately 50 dogs, traveled for nearly two months before reaching the South Pole. Before heading back to the coast of Antarctica, they left a flag to prove that they had succeeded in their mission.
At the same time another expedition was competing with Roald Amundsen's team to be the first to reach the South Pole. This expedition was led by an English naval officer by the name of Robert Scott. Their expedition faced several problems along the way that both slowed them down and left them with fewer supplies. But eventually, he and the four other members arrived at the South Pole on January 17, 1912. They were devastated when they found the flag and dog tracks from the Amundsen expedition. As Scott's team was returning to the coast, they experienced severe weather. Unfortunately, the combination of bad weather and a lack of supplies resulted in all of the men losing their lives before completing their return journey.
At the same time another expedition was competing with Roald Amundsen's team to be the first to reach the South Pole. This expedition was led by an English naval officer by the name of Robert Scott. Their expedition faced several problems along the way that both slowed them down and left them with fewer supplies. But eventually, he and the four other members arrived at the South Pole on January 17, 1912. They were devastated when they found the flag and dog tracks from the Amundsen expedition. As Scott's team was returning to the coast, they experienced severe weather. Unfortunately, the combination of bad weather and a lack of supplies resulted in all of the men losing their lives before completing their return journey.
The Antarctic Treaty System
Antarctica is the only continent where country borders do not exist. But prior to the creation of the first Antarctic treaty seven countries made territorial claims to Antarctica- Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom. These claims, some of which overlap, resemble a pie that has been sliced with all claims starting at the geographic South Pole.
The future of Antarctica was the topic when twelve countries came together at the invitation of the United States of America for the Conference on Antarctic. After several months of hard work in Washington, D.C. the Antarctic Treaty was completed and signed on December 1, 1959. The twelve countries that signed the treaty were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (now Russia), the United States of America, and the United Kingdom. The treaty took effect on June 23, 1961. It was followed by several other treaties that have come to be called the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty is made up of a preamble and fourteen articles.
The First Six Articles of the Antarctic Treaty
Article 1 – Dedicates Antarctica to peaceful purposes only and restricts military activities that are not directly in support of scientific research
Article 2 – Provides for freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation
Article 3 – Contains provisions for the promotion of free exchange of information between expeditions and stations in Antarctica
Article 4 – The Antarctic Treaty does not recognize, dispute, or establish new territorial claims
Article 5 – The Antarctic Treaty bans all nuclear explosions and the dumping of radioactive waste
Article 6 – Specifies that the sea and land area covered by the Antarctic Treaty will apply to areas that lie at and below 60º South latitude
There are currently 53 countries that are part of the Antarctic Treaty. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 and it is located in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The future of Antarctica was the topic when twelve countries came together at the invitation of the United States of America for the Conference on Antarctic. After several months of hard work in Washington, D.C. the Antarctic Treaty was completed and signed on December 1, 1959. The twelve countries that signed the treaty were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, the Union of the Soviet Socialist Republics (now Russia), the United States of America, and the United Kingdom. The treaty took effect on June 23, 1961. It was followed by several other treaties that have come to be called the Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty is made up of a preamble and fourteen articles.
The First Six Articles of the Antarctic Treaty
Article 1 – Dedicates Antarctica to peaceful purposes only and restricts military activities that are not directly in support of scientific research
Article 2 – Provides for freedom of scientific investigation and cooperation
Article 3 – Contains provisions for the promotion of free exchange of information between expeditions and stations in Antarctica
Article 4 – The Antarctic Treaty does not recognize, dispute, or establish new territorial claims
Article 5 – The Antarctic Treaty bans all nuclear explosions and the dumping of radioactive waste
Article 6 – Specifies that the sea and land area covered by the Antarctic Treaty will apply to areas that lie at and below 60º South latitude
There are currently 53 countries that are part of the Antarctic Treaty. The Antarctic Treaty Secretariat was established in 2004 and it is located in Buenos Aires, Argentina.
The National Science Foundation is the U.S. Government agency responsible for supervising all American research
on the continent of Antarctica.
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This NASA photograph shows the Argentine research station on Antarctica. Argentina
operates six permanent research bases in Antarctica.
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The buildings in this photo are located at Amundsen-Scott South Pole Station. They house the scientific researchers at the geographic South Pole. This USAP photograph, by Mike Lucibella, also show the ceremonial flags of countries that operate on Antararctica.
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