Ancient Egypt fascinates people around the world. Like other early civilizations its history goes back thousands of years. But Egypt stands out because of one major difference - they left huge monuments in the form of the pyramids and other structures. Egyptian history was there for all to see down through the ages. A closer look inside the pyramids revealed a society that took passage to the afterlife to an all new level. This page hopes to bring ancient Egypt alive and give a basic understanding of their past.
The Geography of Egypt
Any study of Ancient Egypt must begin with a study of the Nile River. The Nile River, the longest river in the world, provided a steady supply of fresh water. It allowed ancient people to settle nearby and eventually a thriving civilization flourished. Interestingly, the Nile River flows north until it reaches the Nile River delta. From there it fans out into different branches and canals until it flows into the Mediterranean Sea. Desert sands bump-up against the Nile both sides as it makes its way to the coast.
The fact that the Nile River flows north from Ethiopia and Central Africa to the Mediterranean Sea is helpful to understanding Egypt. Stick with me because this may seem a little complicated! The southern part of Egypt has traditionally been referred to as "Upper Egypt." This is because the Nile flows from higher elevations in southern Egypt and then down to sea-level at the coast in northern Egypt. Thus, northern Egypt receives the Nile from high elevations at a lower elevation and is referred to as "Lower Egypt."
The fact that the Nile River flows north from Ethiopia and Central Africa to the Mediterranean Sea is helpful to understanding Egypt. Stick with me because this may seem a little complicated! The southern part of Egypt has traditionally been referred to as "Upper Egypt." This is because the Nile flows from higher elevations in southern Egypt and then down to sea-level at the coast in northern Egypt. Thus, northern Egypt receives the Nile from high elevations at a lower elevation and is referred to as "Lower Egypt."
Flooding would occur every year and bring with it fertile silt that nourished the land. This dependable supply of water allowed for a variety of crops to be planted to feed the growing civilization. Flooding on the Nile River was so important that it helped to form the basis of the ancient Egyptian calendar. Previous calendars, referred to as lunar calendars, used the moon to determine the days, months, and years. The ancient Egyptian calendar was different - it was based on the amount of time that it would take the Earth to revolve around the sun. Thus, it was referred to as a solar calendar.
Each year began with the rising of the star Sirius (in the constellation Canis Major). Sirius, also called the dog star, was easy to track because it was and is the brightest star in the sky. This signaled the coming of the annual floods on the Nile. This usually occurred between July and October in our modern Gregorian calendar. Unfortunately, the actual date that flooding would occur tended to vary from year to year. The flooding of the Nile occurred for approximately four months each year.
The Egyptian solar calendar was composed of three seasons of four months each. The first season, Akhet, began with the arrival Sirius.
Each year began with the rising of the star Sirius (in the constellation Canis Major). Sirius, also called the dog star, was easy to track because it was and is the brightest star in the sky. This signaled the coming of the annual floods on the Nile. This usually occurred between July and October in our modern Gregorian calendar. Unfortunately, the actual date that flooding would occur tended to vary from year to year. The flooding of the Nile occurred for approximately four months each year.
The Egyptian solar calendar was composed of three seasons of four months each. The first season, Akhet, began with the arrival Sirius.
Season One – Akhet / Inundation Season (when the land is flooded)
Season Two – Peret / Growing / Emergence Season (when the crops grow)
Season Three – Shemu / Harvest Season (when the crops are harvested and stored)
Season Two – Peret / Growing / Emergence Season (when the crops grow)
Season Three – Shemu / Harvest Season (when the crops are harvested and stored)
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Basic Facts Related to the Nile River
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Image credit: NASA/GSFC/JPL, MISR Team.
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Lake Nasser
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When the Aswan High Dam was completed in 1970, it helped to launch Egypt into the modern era. The dam was meant to create a large reservoir and to control the river. By the time Lake Nasser was completely filled, it extended well past Egypt's border and 160 kilometers into northern Sudan.
But before it could be completed and filled with water, many people had be relocated away from low lying areas near the water. It is estimated that 90,000 people in Egypt alone had to be moved to higher ground. The historic Abu Sembel temple complex also had to be moved and now sits on higher ground near the edge of the lake. Completion of the huge earthen dam gave the Egyptians the power to control the amount of water being released. It put an end to the yearly flooding of the Nile downstream and produced electricity to power Egypt. |
Image Credit - NASA ISS043-E-101953
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A Brief History of Ancient Egypt
As with other civilizations on Earth, the earliest Egyptians were hunters and gatherers. As their primitive societies developed they began to come together and form communities. Over time these communities were linked with others and civilizations with distinct cultures and traditions developed. Along the way they also developed their own writing system called hieroglyphics (more on that later). These civilizations eventually became known as Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt.
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Modern historians usually classify the various stages of ancient Egyptian history by putting the dynasties into various periods. These periods help us to understand the high and low points of Egyptian history. You will notice that the four major periods are separated by "intermediate periods." These were generally periods of turmoil and change. During different periods of Egyptian history it was invaded by foreign powers who ruled for various periods of time.
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The Old Kingdom (The Period of Pyramid Construction)
First Intermediate Period Middle Kingdom Second Intermediate Period New Kingdom (Golden Age of Ancient Egypt) Third Intermediate Period Late Period |
An example of this can be during the Second Intermediate Period when the Hyksos invaded Egypt. They are thought to have invaded Egypt around the year 1730 BC. The Hyksos had moved west from their home territory in modern-day Israel and Lebanon. They arrived with advanced technology of the time the Egyptians could not defend against. They arrived on horses that pulled two-wheeled chariots. Egyptians of the time are thought to have only possessed four-wheeled wagons. Their warriors also carried compound bows that allowed their arrows to fly a longer distance. After settling around the Nile River Delta they established a new capital in Avaris and ruled until about 1550 BC.
Timeline of Egyptian History
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c. 3500 BC - Settlement of the Nile River Valley
c. 3100 BC - Early Dynastic Period (1st - 2nd Dynasties) c. 2650 - 2181 BC - The Old Kingdom (3rd - 6th Dynasties) c. 2650 BC - Step Pyramid of Djoser Is Built c. 2550 BC - Construction of the Great Pyramids of Giza Begins c. 2181 - 2050 BC - First Intermediate Period (7th - 11th Dynasties) c. 2050 - 1750 BC - Middle Kingdom ( 11th - 12th Dynasties) c. 1750 - 1550 BC - Second Intermediate Period (13th - 17th Dynasties) c. 1730-1550 BC - Hyksos Invasion and Rule In Egypt c. 1550 - 1069 BC - New Kingdom (18th - 20th Dynasties) c. 1069 - 664 BC - Third Intermediate Period (21st - 25th Dynasties) c. 664 - 332 BC - Late Period (26th - 30st Dynasties) 525 BC - The Persian Empire Conquers Egypt 332 BC - Alexander the Great Conquers Egypt 331 BC - The City of Alexandria Is Founded By Alexander the Great 305 BC - Ptolemy I Soter Becomes Pharaoh of Egypt 196 BC - The Rosetta Stone Was Is Inscribed Using Three Scripts 30 BC - Roman Empire Augustus Conquers Egypt |
642 - The Arabs Conquer Egypt
1517 - Ottoman Empire Conquers Egypt 1798 - Napoleon Invades Egypt 1799 - Napoleon's soldiers discover the Rosetta Stone 1822 - Hieroglyphics is Deciphered By Jean François Champollion 1859-1869 - Construction of the Suez Canal 1882 - The British Empire Occupies Egypt 1922 - Egyptologist Howard Carter Discovers the Tomb of Pharaoh Tutankhamun 1953 - Egypt Becomes An Independent Republic 1960-1970 - Construction of the Aswan High Dam 2020 - Construction Should Be Completed on the Grand Egyptian Museum In Giza |
Much of what we know about the early Egyptians is based on accounts in their oral traditions, educated guesses, and the study of archaeological evidence. You will notice that most of the dates shown below are preceded by "c." (circa). If you were to look at dates provided and compare them to other published dates, you would notice that many different dates are assigned to the various periods of Egyptian history. So the dates should taken as approximations only. The important thing to remember about the various periods is that certain events likely occurred and specific dynasties ruled Egypt.
Social Classes In Ancient Egypt
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As you can see above, the Old Kingdom refers to a period of time when Egypt was ruled by the 3rd to 6th Dynasties. It also saw the development of religious beliefs and government. Social classes, often related to a person's employment, also started to become more important. At the top of social structure was the pharaoh. Below the pharaoh were the priests and nobles - government officials who helped to run Egypt. Next were the scribes and the soldiers. Scribes were critical for the operation of kingdom, as well as the religious temples. The soldiers defended the kingdom from internal and external threats. Below the scribes and soldiers were the craftsmen and merchants. The largest group by far, the farmers and slaves, were at the bottom of the social structure.
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Egyptian Writing
Writing developed early in ancient Egyptian history. In fact, historians cannot even nail down the specific century or millennium that it was first used. Hieroglyphics, the first form of Egyptian writing, was based on pictorial characters. There were about 700 hieroglyphs used during most of ancient Egyptian history. These symbols could represent specifics sounds, a group of sounds, or the objects they resemble. A really interesting thing about hieroglyphics is that it can be written in either columns or rows. Not only that, it can also be written to be read from either the left or the right. So how do you know where to begin? Look for a human figure! The human figures in hieroglyphics always "face" the beginning. Notice how the figure below is facing the right. He is "telling" you where to start! Hieroglyphics continued to be used until Egypt was taken over by Greeks later in history.
Right Facing Figure
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I
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K
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M and R
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Ankh
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The Rosetta Stone Stela
Rosetta Stone Stela
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In 1799 French soldiers were occupying Egypt. During the occupation Napoleon ordered French anthropologists, historians, and his soldiers to search Egypt for historic artifacts. One of the those soldiers, while digging near El-Rashid (Rosetta), discovered a large granodiorite stone with writing on it. The stone was broken and missing the top half and had a small portion missing at the bottom. When unearthed and studied, it was determined that the stone was an ancient stela that had three different types of writing. One script was the ancient hieroglyphics, one was an earlier form of writing called demotic script, and the third was Greek. During this time period France and Great Britain were were adversaries in several conflicts. Unfortunately for the French, during one these conflicts, before the stone could be taken to France, it was seized by the British.
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The Rosetta Stone eventually ended up at the British Museum in London. But there was a problem. Hieroglyphics had long since been a "lost language" and it was hoped that the multiple scripts would allow for the deciphering the hieroglyphics. Ultimately, it was a Frenchman named Jean-François Champollion, who deciphered hieroglyphics. The deciphering of hieroglyphics, for the first time, allowed anthropologists and historians to read the ancient language and better understand ancient Egyptian history.
Religion In Ancient Egypt
The high position of priests in the Egyptian social structure reflects the important role that they played in Egyptian society. Religion was an important part of Egyptian society. They were polytheistic, meaning that they believed in many gods. Some gods were worshiped or associated with specific cities or towns. For example, Ptah was the favorite god of Memphis.
Anubis (in the form of a jackal)
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The pharaohs built many temples and monuments to worship the gods. Unfortunately, most of the common people in Egypt were never allowed to enter the sacred temples. Those who were allowed, due to their power or status, would have been overwhelmed by the colorful and artistic displays dedicated to the gods. While common people could not enter most temples, they were encouraged to bring gifts for the gods. The priests, who gathered the gifts, became very wealthy and powerful.
Whether a person was a commoner or the Pharaoh, they had to be concerned with the afterlife. That explains why two of the major Egyptian gods, Osiris and Anubis, were directly connected to spiritual realm after death. |
A few of the major Egyptian gods and goddesses are shown above. Each was associated with at least one specific task or realm (such as the afterlife). They can be seen throughout the art and architecture in Egypt. Most are shown with a human body and a head of a creature.
The Pharaohs
It is thought that the first Egyptian dynasty was created by a king (pharaoh) who lived in Upper Egypt. The term pharaoh refers to the leaders of the various dynasties who ruled Egypt for thousands of years. The first pharaoh was known as Menes. He succeeded in unifying Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt and expanded his rule over even greater distances. He built his capital city on the edge of the Nile Delta and called it Memphis. Ancient Memphis is located close to the modern capital of Cairo.
It is said the king combined the crowns of the Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt to show that they were now one kingdom. Debate continues on whether Menes was actually one king or if in fact it referred to three different kings.
It is said the king combined the crowns of the Upper Egypt and Lower Egypt to show that they were now one kingdom. Debate continues on whether Menes was actually one king or if in fact it referred to three different kings.
Statue of Pharaoh Ramses II (19th Dynasty) at the British Museum
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Cartouches With the Birth and Throne Names of King Amenhotep III
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Egypt's pharaohs played a major role in Egyptian life. They ruled by making laws, leading the army, and being the link between the people and the gods. But keeping their kingdom running and protecting it from outside forces was a full-time task. At times they occasionally went outside the traditional borders of Egypt and conquered lands in southwest Asia.
Most of the pharaohs also built temples and monuments to please the gods. But they also needed to project and show their power, so they made sure that their cartouche was inscribed on their projects. A cartouche is an oblong carving or drawing that looks like a scroll and showed a pharaoh’s name. Each pharaoh had their own unique cartouche.
When the Pharaohs died, they wanted to keep the power "in the family." When power and positions are passed along to close family members it is referred to as a dynasty. This dynastic power was usually handed down to the oldest son in the family. If the oldest son could not assume leadership of Egypt, a younger son was usually selected. This allowed certain powerful families to rule for hundreds of years. But eventually, the reigning dynasty was challenged by another powerful family or an outside invader, and the dynasty came to an end. New powerful families would usually then take power and form their own dynasty. This was the situation throughout the history of the Egypt's thirty dynasties.
Most of the pharaohs also built temples and monuments to please the gods. But they also needed to project and show their power, so they made sure that their cartouche was inscribed on their projects. A cartouche is an oblong carving or drawing that looks like a scroll and showed a pharaoh’s name. Each pharaoh had their own unique cartouche.
When the Pharaohs died, they wanted to keep the power "in the family." When power and positions are passed along to close family members it is referred to as a dynasty. This dynastic power was usually handed down to the oldest son in the family. If the oldest son could not assume leadership of Egypt, a younger son was usually selected. This allowed certain powerful families to rule for hundreds of years. But eventually, the reigning dynasty was challenged by another powerful family or an outside invader, and the dynasty came to an end. New powerful families would usually then take power and form their own dynasty. This was the situation throughout the history of the Egypt's thirty dynasties.
The Pyramids of Egypt
The pyramids are undoubtedly the first thing that most people think of when they think of Egypt. The pyramids were specials tombs that were constructed to house the body of the pharaoh. It was designed to protect the pharaoh's body so that his ka, a person's life force, could continue to exist. It is thought that the ka could exist in the tomb or inside statues within the tomb. The hieroglyph for the ka was a pair of upraised arms. It would allow the person's ba, another spirit, to transit to the afterlife. The ba is frequently represented in tombs as a falcon with a man's head.
The first known pyramid was a step pyramid that was constructed around 2650 BC. It was a built in a funerary complex in Ṣaqqārah near the capital city of Memphis. Called the Djoser Pyramid, it was built for Pharaoh Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty. The step pyramid, as the name implies, was constructed using six steps rising to a flat-topped pyramid.
Around one hundred years later the huge pyramids on the Giza Plateau began to be built. The first pyramid, the Pyramid of Khufu, was the largest pyramid built and rises 147 meters above the desert. It was made of blocks of stone that weighed about two tons each. The second pyramid was built by Khufu's son, Pharaoh Khafre. The smallest of the three pyramids was built by Pharaoh Menkaure. The Sphinx, a half-man and half-lion statue, stands guard close to the three pyramids. This huge stone structure was built out of a large piece of limestone over 20 meters high and 73 meters long.
Unfortunately, thieves looted the pyramids thousands of years ago. Stone that had once covered many of the tombs had been stolen over time by people who were constructing buildings nearby. Inside the pyramids, valuable contents were taken leaving only decorated chambers.
The first known pyramid was a step pyramid that was constructed around 2650 BC. It was a built in a funerary complex in Ṣaqqārah near the capital city of Memphis. Called the Djoser Pyramid, it was built for Pharaoh Djoser of the 3rd Dynasty. The step pyramid, as the name implies, was constructed using six steps rising to a flat-topped pyramid.
Around one hundred years later the huge pyramids on the Giza Plateau began to be built. The first pyramid, the Pyramid of Khufu, was the largest pyramid built and rises 147 meters above the desert. It was made of blocks of stone that weighed about two tons each. The second pyramid was built by Khufu's son, Pharaoh Khafre. The smallest of the three pyramids was built by Pharaoh Menkaure. The Sphinx, a half-man and half-lion statue, stands guard close to the three pyramids. This huge stone structure was built out of a large piece of limestone over 20 meters high and 73 meters long.
Unfortunately, thieves looted the pyramids thousands of years ago. Stone that had once covered many of the tombs had been stolen over time by people who were constructing buildings nearby. Inside the pyramids, valuable contents were taken leaving only decorated chambers.
The Valley of the Kings
Construction of huge pyramids and the costs associated with them played a major role in the decline of the Old Kingdom. But during the 19th Dynasty tomb construction moved south to the Valley of the Kings near modern-day Luxor.
1924 Photograph of Howard Carter (Photograph Retrieved from the US Library of Congress)
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It was hoped that by building tombs in the valley, far away from normal human habitation, that the pharaohs could rest in peace. Unfortunately, over time, the grave robbers were able to loot the tombs as much as they had the pyramids. For archaeologists arriving long after the fact, it seemed that hope of ever finding an intact tomb was impossible.
But a huge discovery in 1922 changed everything. Egyptologist Howard Carter discovered an intact and nearly complete tomb that belonged to Pharaoh Tutankhamun. For the first time, archaeologists and historians could discover what a nearly untouched tomb contained. Inside were chariots, amulets, weapons, staffs, clothing, and furniture. In the funerary chamber Tutankhamum's mummy was inside three different coffins and a sarcophagus. Perhaps the best known discovery was the solid gold portrait mask with its striped nemes. Many of the artifacts are now on display in Cairo, Egypt. |
Mummification
When powerful and wealthy people in ancient Egypt died, their bodies usually underwent a process to prepare it for burial. The bodies of deceased people had to be preserved because it was thought that if the body were not preserved, the ka would not recognize it and be able to return. The process, called mummification, was lengthy and involved many steps. Pharaohs, in particular, had the most lengthy process that was performed by high-ranking priests.
Canopic Jars
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Mummy
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Shabti
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After the pharaoh died it was necessary to remove internal organs to prevent the body from rotting. Beginning early in Egyptian history the internal organs (except the heart) were removed and placed in special containers. These containers, called canopic jars, were usually placed in a box next to the pharaoh's sarcophagus. During the Middle Kingdom the jars began to take on a new look and a more specific role. The lid of each of the four jars began to resemble the heads that represented the four sons of the god Horus. The sons, all gods, were responsible for protecting the organ in the jar. When the lungs were removed they were placed in a canopic jar with the lid representing the baboon headed god Hapi. Imsety, the human headed god, guarded the liver, Duamuteft (jackal-headed) the stomach, and Qubehsenuf (falcon headed) the intestines.
Funerary Stela
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Cartonnage Case Inside A Wooden Coffin
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Sarcophagus
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Once the internal organs were removed it was critical to remove all of the moisture from the body. Priests used natron both outside and inside the body to dry it out. The next major step was to wrap the body in linen. Many layers of linen and resin were used to wrap the body and amulets would sometimes be added between the layers to protect the body. Once complete, linen straps were used to secure the layers in place. Masks were sometimes placed over the mummy that covered the head and shoulders. The face showed an idealized appearance but would allow the ba to recognize and return to the body. Mummies could also be placed in containers called cartonnage. These were made by gluing together tightly wrapped papyrus or linen. After drying, the cartonnage was usually decorated with a face, images, and prayers that would help them to make it to the afterlife. The finished cartonnage was then placed inside a wooden coffin before being placed inside a stone sarcophagus.
When the deceased person was alive they were attended to by many servants. So, small figures, called shabti, often resembled a mummy. The shabti were placed in or near the sarcophagus and were meant to serve the deceased in the afterlife.